6 . IX 



AN 



ANALYTICAL 



AND 



PRACTICAL GRAMMAR 



OF THE 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



REVISED, CORRECTED, AND IMPROVED. 



By Rev. PETER BULLIONS, D. D., 

LATE PROFESSOR OF LANGUAGES IN THE ALBANY ACADEMY, AND AUTHOR OF THE SERIES 
OF GRAMMARS, GREEK, LATIN, AND ENGLISH, ON THE SAME PLAN, ETC 

/' SEVENTIETH EDITION. 



NEW YORK: 
SHELDON' & COMPANY, Publishers, 

335 BROADWAY. 
1862. 



w 



o<\ 



BULLIONS 5 

SERIES OF GRAMMARS, &c. 



Practical Lessons in English Grammar and Composition, adapted to the 
capacity of pupils at an early age. 

Principles of English Grammar, for classes pursuing this branch of study 
in common schools. 

Introduction to Analytical and Practical English Grammar. The defini- 
tions and rules are the same, and arranged in the same order as in the 

Analytical and Practical English Grammar, designed to give the student 
a thorough and critical acquaintance with the structure and use of 
the English language. 

Exercises in Analysis and Parsing. Selections from standard writers, 
with directions for the analysis of sentences, etc. 

Latin Lessons with Exercises in Parsing. Introduction to Bullions' Latin 
Grammar. By George Spencer. 

Principles of Latin Grammar. This work comprises the substance of the 
most approved Latin Grammars extant, and is noted for conciseness, 
accuracy, perspicuous arrangement, and adaptation to the use of both 
teachers and pupils. 

Latin Reader. With an introduction on the idioms of the Latin Lan- 
guage, an improved vocabulary, &c. 

Latin Exercises. Illustrating the principles and idioms of the Latin 
Language. 

Key to Latin Exercises. 

Caesar's Commentaries. Embellished with a map of Gaul, and several 
wood cuts, representing the engines of war used by tl^Komans. 

Cicero's Orations. With historical and archalogical notes. 

Sallnst. With a fine map of Numidia. 

Greek Lessons. For beginners, and complete in itself; being a Gram- 
mar, Exercises, Reading-book, and Lexicon, all in one. 

Principles of Greek Grammar. For academies and colleges. 

Greek Reader. With introduction and improved Lexicon. 

Latin-English Dictionary for Academies and Colleges. 

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1862, 

By PETER BULLIONS, 

in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States, in and 

for the Northern District of New York. 



MANUFACTURED BY 

CASE, LOCKWOOD AND CO., PRINTERS, ELECTROTYPERS AND BOOKBINDERS, 

Hartford, Conn. 



* 3 3 W 



PREFACE. 



This work is prepared on a more extended plan than the " Principles 
of English Grammar," and is intended to occupy a higher place in the 
"Series of Grammars, English, Latin, and Greek, on the same plan." 
Since that work was first published, a greater interest has been taken in 
the subject of education generally, than for a long period before. Differ- 
ence of opinion, on various subjects, has led to discussion — discussion to 
investigation — and investigation to the discovery and establishment of 
truth. As a consequence of this, that which was sound and stable before 
has been confirmed — many points that were doubtful have been settled — 
new and improved methods of investigating subjects, and of imparting 
instruction, have been adopted — and the whole subject of education, in 
both theory and practice, has been advanced much beyond what it was 
at any former period. In this onward progress, the subject of English 
grammar has not been left behind. Teachers in both higher and lower 
seminaries, have given it their attention — authorities have been compared 
— original investigations have been made — views have been interchanged, 
privately and through the press — all resulting in the advancement of 
this branch of study. 

The subject of Analysis, wholly omitted in the former work, is here 
introduced in its proper place, and to an extent in accordance with its 
importance. Many questions on disputed points have been examined 
with much care ; and something, it is hoped, has been done to contribute 
to their settlement : and when this required more space than was proper 
to be taken up in the body of the work, the discussion has been thrown 
into the Appendix. A much greater variety of exercises has been intro- 
duced at every step, with directions for the manner of using them. To 
every part of speech, an oral exercise, of the inductive kind, has been 
annexed as a specimen of the way in which the mind of the learner may 
be trained to think and reason on the subject, and prepared to profit 
more by the exercises that follow. 

By adopting the plan of a running series of numbers to mark the par- 
agraphs, reference from one part to another is rendered more convenient, 
and is employed wherever it was thought to be profitable. 

The Syntax is much fuller than in the former work ; and though the 
rules are not different, they are arranged in a different order, so that all 
that belongs to one subject is collected under one head, instead of being 



IV PREFACE. 

scattered in different places; and the proper subordination of parts is 
exhibited in a series of subordinate rules, wherever it was necessary. In 
this way the whole is rendered more compact- — the number of leading 
rules is reduced — and the unity of each subject is better preserved. 

In the rules and definitions throughout, accuracy, brevity, euphony, 
and adaptation to the practical operations of the schoolroom, have been 
particularly attended to. No startling novelties have been introduced ; 
at the same time, where it was thought that a change would be an improve- 
ment, it has been made. It was felt that a work on this*subject, of a 
higher grade, and more suited to the wants of higher seminaries, and 
more advanced students, without detracting from its simplicity and prac- 
tical character, was wanted, and the aim has been to supply this want; 
while, at the same time, its relation to the series of which it is intended 
to form a part, has not only been preserved, but rendered more close and 
intimate. 

With a grateful sense of past kindnesses, the author now commits the 
results of his labors to the favorable consideration of a candid and en- 
lightened public, and especially to that of the Teachers throughout the 
United States. 

PREFACE TO REVISED EDITION. 

New plates for this work having become necessary, the opportunity 
thus presented for a thorough revision has been embraced. In this re- 
vision, the object aimed at has been, not to change, but to improve. For 
this end, criticisms and suggestions from various quarters, especially from 
practical teachers, have been duly, and it is hoped profitably considered; 
greater precision and clearness of expression, in some places, have been 
studied ; errors not formerly noticed have been corrected ; numerous 
references from one part to another for illustration by means of the 
running paragraph numbers, have been inserted ; technical terms 
have been more fully explained by definition or reference; additions 
have been made, where thought necessary, without interfering with 
the arrangement or character of the work; several articles have 
been inserted in the Appendix, to which proper references are made 
from the body of the work; and a larger type has been adopted instead 
of the smallest size formerly used. No pains have been spared to render 
the whole as complete in its details, and as attractive in its appearance as 
it can be made without increasing the size or the expense of the work, 
and to render it a text-book for Academies and schools fitted to relieve 
both teachers and their pupils from much unnecessary labor and waste of 
time in prosecuting this branch of learning. 

Troy, N. Y., 1862. 



INDEX AND TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



Grammar, Definition and Division of Page 9 

PART I. — ORTHOGRAPHY 

Letters, Division and Power of 10 

Syllables, • 12 

Spelling, Rules for 13-15 

Capitals, Use of ...» 16 

PART H. — ETYMOLOGY. 

Words, General Divisions of .... . 17 

Parsing of 18 

Parts of Speech, 18 

Nouns, Definition and Division of 19 

Observations on, and Kinds of .<=.,..... 19 

Accidents of 20 

Person of— Observations on 21 

Gender of . 2% 

Observations on 23 

Exercises on « 24 

Number, Definition of 25 

Plural, Rules for 25 

Irregular 26 

Observations on , 29 

Exercises on 26, 29 

Case of, General Rules for 31, 32 

Nominative, Use of 32 

Construction of . . . . 163,164,165,170 

Possessive, Use of— how formed 32 

Observations on 32 

Construction of ....... . 181 

Objective, Use of 32 

Governed by Active Transitive Verbs, .... 171 

Prepositions, 174 

Without a governing Word, ...... 176 

Declension of 32 

Parsing of, and Oral Exercises on ........ 34 

Exercises on 35 

Article, Parsing of, and Exercises on 36, 37 

Construction of 154 

Adjectives, Definition and Division of . . 38 

Numeral, Classes of 39 

Comparison of •».... 39 

Rules for 40 

Irregular ..,..,.... 41 

Not compared, , » . . .42 

Parsing of, and Oral Exercises on ...... 42, 43 

Exercises on 44 

Construction of .... 149 

PRONOUNS, Definition and Division of . 45 

Personal, simple, Declension of . . . , . . 45, 46 

Observations on • . 46 

Compound, . 48 



6 CONTENTS. 

Pronouns, Personal, Parsing of, and Oral Exercises on Page 49 

Exercises on 49 

Construction of 158 

Relative, Declension and Use of . . • . „ . . , 50-52 

Compound 52 

Parsing of, and Exercises on 53, 54 

Construction of 161 

Interrogative and Responsive of ,54 

Parsing of, and Exercises on ....... 55 

Adjective, Definition and Division of 55, 56 

Possessive of 56 

Distributive of 57 

Demonstrative of 57 

Indefinite of 57 

Parsing of, and Exercises on 58, 59 

Construction of 142 

Verbs, Definition of 60 

Transitive and Intransitive 60 

Oral and other Exercises on 61 

Division of 62 

Auxiliary, Use of—" Shall," "Will," &c 62, 63, 64, 65 

Exercises on . 66 

Anomalous Use of 66 

Inflection of, Accidents of 67 

Voice, Active . . .67 

Passive 67 

Moods, Division of .69 

Indicative . 69 

Potential 70 

Subjunctive 70 

Construction of 185 

Imperative 71 

Infinitive . 71 

Construction of - 186-188 

Tenses, Division of 72 

Of the Indicative Mood • 72, 74 

Of the Potential Mood 75 

Of the Subjunctive Mood 75-76 

Of the Imperative Mood 77 

Of the Infinitive Mood . 77 

Construction of . 186 

Connection of 193 

Participles, Division of 78 

in ing in a passive Sense . 78 

as a Verbal Noun 79 

Construction of 190, 191 

Number and Person of 79 

Conjugation of 80 

Of the Irregular Verb " to be " 82 

Of the Regular Verb " to love," active Voice ... 86 

Oral Exercises and Exercises on . 88, 89 

Negative Form 91 

Interrogative Form ....... 92 

Progressive Form 93 



CONTENTS. 7 

Verbs, Progressive Form, Exercises on ........ Page 93 

Passive Voice 94 

Observations on, Exercises on . .96 

Parsing of 85 

Irregular 97 

Defective . 102 

Impersonal 103 

Exercises . 103,104 

Construction of 165-167 

Adverbs, Definition of 104 

Classification of 105 

Formation and Derivation of 106 

Comparison of 107 

Parsing of, and Exercises on ■ 107, 108 

Construction of 195-197 

Prepositions, Definition and List of 109, 110 

Observations on 110 

Parsing of, and Exercises on Ill 

Construction of 174-177 

Interjections, Definition and List of 112 

Parsing 112 

Construction of 203, 204 

Conjunctions, Definition and Division of 113 

Observations on • ... 113 

Parsing of, and Exercises on . 113, 114 

Construction of ... 199 

Parsing, different Kinds of 115 

Etymological Method of 115 

Model of 116-119 

Exercises in . 120-125 

PART HI.— SYNTAX. 

Syntax, definitions, , 126 

Sentences, different Kinds of 126 

I. Analysis of .127 

A Simple Sentence, its Parts 127 

Subject of 129 

Modifications of 130 

Of modifying words .... 131 

Predicate of 132 

Modifications of 133 

Compound, Definition of 134 

Clauses of, different Kinds 135 

Connection of 135 

-Abridged Propositions 137 

Analysis, Directions for . • , , , 138 

Models of 139 

Exercises in 142 

II. Construction of, General Principles 143 

Syntax, Parts of 144 

Rules of 144-148 

rules. 

I . . . . Substantives in Apposition 148 

II Adjective with a Substantive . * . . 149 

Comparatives and Superlatives • . 151 



8 CONTENTS. 

III. . . . Article and its Noun , Page 154* 

IV. . . . Pronoun and its Antecedent, Special Rules 158 

V Relative and its Antecedent 161 

VI ... The Subject Nominative 163 

VII. . . The Nominative, Absolute or Independent, Special Rules . . . 164 
VIII. . . The Verb and its Subject or Nominative , 165 

Special Rules for 166, 167 

IX. . . . The Predicate Nominative 170 

X. ... The Objective governed by Verbs „ 171 

Special Rules k 171 ^ 172 

XI. . . . The Objective governed by Prepositions I74 

without a governing Word 176 

XII. . . Prepositions after certain Words I77 

XIII. . . Possessive governed by Substantives , 181 

XIV. . . Subjunctive Mood .'■"'. 185 

XV. . . . Infinitive Mood 186 

Special Rules 187, 188 

XVI. . . Participles •••'.••..'••...'. 190 

Special Rules 190 ^ 19^ 

XVII. . . Connection of Tenses I93 

XVIII. . Adverbs — Special Rules 195, 196, 197 

XIX. . . Conjunctions .'■'.".'. 199 

Special Rules ....... . 200, 201 

XX . . . Interjections 203 

General Rule . 203 

Ellipses — when admissible t 205 

when not admissible ....... ... 206 

Parsing, syntactical, Definition of, Model of ...,.,. 208 

Exercises, promiscuous, on Rules of Syntax . . . , % . 210-214 

Improper Expressions, List of : 214, 215 

Punctuation . 215 

Comma, Rules for 216 

Semicolon, do. ....... „ . . 217 

Colon, do 218 

Period 219 

Interrogation 219 

Other Marks used in W T riting . . . . . . . . 219, 220 

Figures, different Kinds of 221 

Of Etymology and Syntax 221 

Of Rhetoric > 222 

Poetic License 223-225 

PART IV. — PROSODY, 

Prosody, Division of «L 226 

Elocution 226 

Versification ...»...««••- 227 

Feet 227 

Poetic Pauses .......••' 234 

Composition t 235 

The Use of Grammar in Composition ..,.<«• 236 
The Law of Language ....... 4 . 236 

Rules for 238 

Hints for correct and elegant Writing 238 

Themes for Composition 243 

Appendix 246 



GRAMMAR. 



1 • Grammar is both a science and an art. 

2, As a science, it investigates the principles of lan- 
guage in general : as an art, it teaches the right method 
of applying these principles to a particular language, so 
as thereby to express our thoughts in a correct and 
proper manner, according to established usage. 

3* English Grammar is the art of speaking and writ- 
ing the English language with propriety. 

4. Language is either spoken or written. 

5. The elements of spoken language, are vocal and articulate 
sounds. (25 and 26.) 

6. The elements of written language, are characters or letters 
which represent these sounds. 

7. Letters are formed into syllables and words ; words into sen- 
tences ; and by these, properly uttered or written, men communi- 
cate their thoughts to each other. 

8. Grammar is divided into four parts ; namely, Or- 
thography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. 

9. Orthography treats of letters and syllables ;* Ety- 
mology, of words; Syntax, of sentences; and Prosody, 
of elocution and versification. 

* Orthography is properly a part of Grammar, as it belongs to " the art of speaking 
and writing a language with propriety." Yet as the whole subject is treated more fully 
in the spelling-book and dictionary, a brief synopsis of its principles only is here given, 
rather as a matter of form, than with a view to its being particularly studied at this 
stage. The teacher may therefore, if he thinks proper, pass over Part I. for the pres- 
ent, and begin with Part II. 

1* 



10 ENGLISH GRAM MA 11, 

PART I. 



ORTHOGRAPHY, 

10. Orthography treats of letters, and of the mode 
of combining them into syllables and words. 

11. A letter is a mark, or character, used to represent an element- 
ary sound of the human voice. 

12. There are Twenty -six letters in the English Alphabet. 

13. Letters are either Vowels or Consonants. 

14. A Vowel is a letter which represents a simple inarticulate 
sound (25) ; and, in a word or syllable, may be sounded alone. The 
vowels are a, e, i, o, u, and w and y not before a vowel sounded in 
the same syllable, as in law, bay. 

15. A Consonant is a letter which represents inarticulate sound 
(26) ; and, in a word or syllable, is never sounded alone, but always 
in connection with a vowel. The consonants are b, c, d, f, g, h, j, h, 
I, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, x, z, and w and y before a vowel sounded in 
the same syllable, as in war, youth, 

16. A Diphthong is the union of two vowels in one sound. Diph- 
thongs are of two kinds, proper and improper. 

IT. A Proper Diphthong is one in which both the vowels are 
sounded, as ou, in out ; oi, in oil; ow, in cow, 

18. An Improper Diphthong, or digraph, is one in which only 
one of the vowels is sounded, as ou in court, oa in boat. 

19. A Triphthong is the union of three vowels in one sound, as 
eau in beauty. 

THE POWERS OF LETTERS. 

20. In analyzing words into their elementary sounds, it is neces- 
sary to distinguish between the name of a letter and its power. 

21. The name of a letter is that by which it is usually called; as 
A, be, se, de, &c. 

22. The power of a letter is the effect which it has, either by 
itself, or combined with other letters, in forming a word or syllable. 

23. Each of the vowels has several powers. Several letters have 
the same power ; and certain powers or elements of words are re- 
presented by a combination of two letters. 

24. The elementary powers or sounds in the English language are 
about forty, and are divided into Vocals, represented by vowels and 



ORTHOGRAPHY — LETTERS. 



11 



diphthongs ; and Subvocals and Asjnrates, represented by consonants, 
single or combined. 

25. Vocals are inarticulate sounds produced by the organs of 
voice, with the mouth more or less open, and with no change, or 
but slight change, of position in the organs of speech. 

26. Sub vocals are sounds produced by the organs of voice, artic- 
ulated or modified by certain changes in the position of the organs 
of speech. 

27. Aspirates are mere whispering sounds without vocality, but 
which still have an audible effect in the enunciation of words. 
They are all articulate except h. 

28. The elementary powers of letters can not be exhibited to the 
eye, but must be learned from the living voice. 

29. The name of a vowel is always one of its powers (except w 
and y), and if from the name of a consonant, we take away the 
vowel sound, what remains is generally the power of that consonant, 
except w and y. 

30. A full view of the elementary powers of letters in the forma- 
tion of words, is exhibited in the following table. In the words an- 
nexed as examples, the letter whose power is indicated is printed in 
Italic. By pronouncing the word distinctly, and then leaving out 
all but the power of the Italic letter, and uttering that alone, we 
have the power of that letter. 

31. Table of Elementary Sounds in the English Language. 



VOCALS. 


SUBVOCALS. 


ASPIRATES. 


A. 


ale, able. 


B. 


bat, orb. 


F. 


fix. 


A. 


art. 


D. 


do, did. 


H. 


hat. 


A. 


all. 


G. 


gone, dog. 


K. 


* Joeen, boo&. 


A. 


at. 


J. 


judge. 


P. 


pen, top. 


E. 


me. 


L. 


lie. 


S. 


sun. 


E. 


met, egg. 


M. 


man. 


T. 


ton, bat. 


I. 


^'re. 


N. 


no. 


Th. 


faith. 


r. 


in. 


NG. 


ring. 


Sh. 


show. 


0. 


old. 


R.* 


rope, far. 


Ch. 


chide. 


0. 


move, ooze. 


Th. 


this. 


Wh. 


when. 


0. 


odd. 


V. 


^an. 






U. 


fame, ^se. 


W. 


we. 






u. 


#p. 


Y. 


yes. 






u. 


Ml. 


Z. 


zinc. 






Ou. 


thou. 


Z. 


azure. 







*R before a vowel has a hard or trilling sound ; as, rat, rough : after a vowel, a soft 
and liquid sound ; as, arm, far. 



12 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



32. Certain letters in the English Alphabet have the same power 
as others in the preceding table, and may therefore be called Equiv- 
alents. Equivalents of vowels and diphthongs are numerous. 

33. Of the Subvocals and Aspirates, eight pairs are Correlatives. 
In sounding the first of any of these pairs, the organs of voice* and 
speech are in the same position as in sounding its fellow, but the 
first, or subvocal, has vocality ; the second, or aspirate, has not. 

34. Table of Equivalents and Correlatives. 



EQUIVALENTS. 


CORRELATIVES. 




Subvocals. 


Asp 


irates. 


W =u cow, mew. 


V. vow. 


F. 


fame. 


Y =i fa/rant, system. 


G. gone. 


K. 


keep. 


C hard r=k cat. 


B. bat. 


P. 


pen. 


Q =k liquor. 


Z. zinc. 


S. 


sin. 


C soft =s cent. 


D. do. 


T. 


top. 


G soft ==j pin. 


Th. this. 


Th. 


thick. 


X =ks &x. 


Z. azure. 


Sh. 


show. 




J. judge. 


Ch. 


chide. 



35. These elementary sounds of the human voice, sometimes 
simple, but more commonly combined, are formed into syllables 
and words. 



SYLLABLES. 

36. A Syllable is a certain vocal or articulate sound, 
uttered by one impulse of the voice, and represented by 
one or more letters, as, farm, far m-er, ea-gle, a-e-ri-al. 

37. Every word contains as many syllables as it has distinct vocal 
sounds, as gram-ma-ri-an. 

38. A word of one syllable is called a Monosyllable. 

39. A word of two syllables is called a Dissyllable. 

40. A word of three syllables is called a Trisyllable. 

41. A word of more than three syllables is called a Polysyllable. 

*The Organs of voice are those parts (called by physiologists the larynx and its appen- 
dages) which are employed in the production of simple Tocal sounds. 

The Organs of speech are those parts employed to articulate or modify whispering or 
yocal sounds. These are the tongue, lips, teeth, and palate. 



ORTHOGRAPHY — SYLLABLES. 13 



DIVISION OF WORDS INTO SYLLABLES. 

42. The division of words into syllables is called Syl- 
labication. 

GENERAL RULE. 

43. Place together in distinct syllables, those letters which make 
up the separate parts or divisions of a word, as heard in its correct 
pronunciation. 

41. The only definite rules of much value on this subject are the fol- 
lowing: — 

45. Rule 1. Two or more consonants forming but one elementary 
sound, are never separated ; such as, ch, teh, th, sh, ng, ph, wh, gh 
silent, or sounding f, Ik sounding Tc, &c. ; as, church-es, watch-es, icor- 
thy,fish-es, sing-ing, 2>hiloso-phy, sigh-ing, cough-ing, walk-ing. 

46. Rule 2. The terminations, cean, cian, ceous, clous, rial, tion, 
tious, tial, geon, gian, geous, sion, are hardly ever divided ; z&o-cean, 
gra-cious, na-tion, coura-geous,&c. 

47. Rule 3. Compound words are divided into their simple ones ; 
as, rail-road, bee-hive, hope-less, thank-ful, &c. 

48. Rule 4. The terminations of words, when they form a sylla- 
ble, are usually separated from their roots ; as, writ-er, teach-es, 
think-ing, cold-er, old-est. 

49. Two separate words combined as one name, are usually sepa- 
rated by a hyphen ; as rail-road, glass-house, bee-hive. 

50. In writing, a word of more than one syllable may be divided 
at the end of a line, but a monosyllable or a syllable, never. 



SPELLING. 

51. Spelling- is the art of expressing a word by its 
proper letters. 

52. The Orthography of the English language is so anomalous, and in 
many cases arbitrary, that proficiency in it can be acquired only by prac- 
tice, and the use of the spelling-book or dictionary. The following rules 
are of a general character, though even to these there may be a few 
exceptions : — 



14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

GENERAL RULES FOR SPELLING WORDS. 

RULE I. 

53. Monosyllables ending with f I, or s, preceded by a single 
vowel, double the final consonant ; as, staff, mill, pass. 

54. Exceptions. — Of, if, as, is, has, was, his, gas, yes, this, us, thus, pus. 

RULE II. 

55. "Words ending with any consonant except f, Z, or s, do not 
double the final letter; as, sit, not, up, put, that, in. 

56. Exceptions.— KA^, bunn, butt, buzz, ebb, egg, err, inn, odd, purr. 

RULE III. 

57. — 1. Words ending in y preceded by a consonant, change y into 
i before an additional letter or syllable ; as, spy, spies ; happy, hap- 
pier, happiest ; carry, carrier, carried ; fancy, fanciful. 

58. Exception 1. — But y is not changed before ing ; as, deny, denying 
59. — 2. Words ending in y preceded by a vowel, retain the y 
unchanged; as, boy, boys, boyisli, boyhood. 

Exception 3. — But lay, pay, say, make laid, paid, said; and day makes 
daily. 

RULE IV. 

60. Monosyllables and words accented on the last syllable, ending 
with a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, double that con- 
sonant before an additional s}dlable beginning with a vowel ; as rob, 
robber; admit, admittance, admitted. 

Exception. — But x and h are never doubled. 

61. But when a diphthong or a double vowel precedes, or the ac- 
cent is not on the last syllable, the consonant is not doubled ; as 
boil, boiling, boiler ; wool, icoolen ; fool, foolish ; visit, visited. 

62. Exceptions. — In about fifty words ending in I with a vowel before 
it, and not accented on the last syllable, many writers, contrary to anal- 
ogy and without necessity, double the I improperly before an additional 
syllable. These are such words as travel, traveller, travelling, travelled.* 

63. So also s and^ are generally, though improperly, doubled in bias, 
worship, and kidnap ; as biassing, worshipper, kidnapping. Webster, 
and many writers following him, in these words conform to the general 
rule. 

* The words referred to are the following; Apparel, bevel, bowel, cancel, carol, cavil, 
channel, chisel, counsel, cudgel, dishevel, drivel, duel, embowel, enamel, empanel, equal, 
gambol, gravel, grovel, handsel, hatchel, imperil, jewel, kennel, label, level, libel, mar- 
shal, marvel, model, panel, parcel, pencil, peril, pistol, pommel, quarrel, ravel, revel, 
rival, rowel, shovel, shrivel, snivel, tassel, trammel, travel, tunnel, unravel. 



ORTHOGRAPHY — SPELLING. 15 

RULE V. 

64. Words ending with II drop one I before the terminations less 
and ly, to prevent trebling; as, skill, sMlless ; full, fully, and 
some writers, before ness and ful; as, fulness, skilful. 

65. But words ending in any other double letter, preserve the 
letter double before less, ly, ness, and ful ■ as harmlessly, stiffly, 
gruff ness, &c. 

EULE VI. 

66. Silent e is preserved before the terminations, merit, less, ly, 
and ful; as, paleness, peaceful,, abatement, &c. 

67. Exceptions. Duly, truly, awful, and generally, judgment, acknowl- 
edgment, lodgment, abridgment, are excepted. Argument, from the 
Latin argumentum, is not an exception. 

RULE VIL 

68. Silent e is omitted before terminations beginning with a vowel ; 
as, slave, slavish; cure, curable; sense, sensible; lodge, lodging ; 
love, lovest. 

69. Blame, move, reprove, sale, and their compounds, sometimes, though 
improperly, retain e before able; as, blameable, &c. 

TO. But words ending in ge and ce retain e before able, in order to pre- 
serve the soft sound of g and c; as, changeable, peaceable, &c. For the 
same reason we have singeing and swingeing: dye has dyeing, to distin- 
guish it from dying. So also words ending with c hard insert Jc before^ a 
syllable beginning with e or i to preserve the hard sound; as, frolic, 
frolicked, frolicking. 

71. The letters ie at the end of a word, are changed into y before ing; 
as, die, dying; lie, lying. 

rule vin. 

72. Simple words, ending in 11, when joined to other words gen- 
erally drop one I, when they lose the accent ; as, awful, hopeful, 
handful, careful, already. 

73. But when they are under the accent, the double I should be 
retained ; as, fulfill, willful, recall, foretell. But, until, welcome, 
always, also, withal, therewithal, wherewithal, have single I. 

74. In words under this rule, however, usage is far from uniform— ful- 
fil and fulfill; willful and wilful; recal and recall; foretel and foretell, 
and similar varieties are common. 

75. Other compounded words are generally spelled in the same manner 
as the simple words of which they are formed ; as, glass-house, niill-wright, 
thereby. 

76. Many words in English admit of two or more different modes of 
spelling ; as, connection, connexion; enquire, inquire; chemistry, chymis- 
try, &c. In such cases, prevailing usage and analogy must be our guides. 



16 ENGLISH GRAMMAK. 



CAPITALS. 



77. Formerly every noun began with a capital letter, both in writing 
and in printing ; but at present only the following words begin with cap° 
ital letters : — 

1. The first word of every book, chapter, letter, note, or of any 
other piece of writing. 

2. The first word after a period ; also after a note of interrogation, 
or exclamation, when the sentence before, and the one after it, are 
independent of each other. 

But if several interrogatory or exclamatory sentences are so connected, 
that the latter sentences depend on the former, all of them, except the 
first, may begin with a small letter; as, "How doth the city sit solitary, 
that was full of people! how are her habitations become as desolate! 
how is she become as a widow ! 

3. Proper names, titles of office or honor ; as, George Washing- 
ton, General Lee, Judge Story, Sir Walter Scott, America, the Ohio, 
Pratt, Woodford & Co., Pearl Street, New York 

4. The pronoun 7", and the interjection 0, are written in capitals. 

5. The first word of every line in poetry. 

6. The appellations of the Deity ; as, God, Most High, the Al- 
mighty, the Supreme Being, &c. 

7. Adjectives derived from the proper names of places ; as, Gre- 
cian, Roman, English, &c. 

8. The first word of a direct quotation (1124), when the quotation 
would form a complete sentence by itself; as, "Always remember 
this ancient maxim: ' Know thyself.' " 

When a quotation is not introduced in the direct form (1125), but 
follows a comma, the first word must not begin with a capital; as, 
"Solomon observes, that * pride goes before destruction.'" 

9. Common nouns when personified ; as, " Come, gentle Spring." 

10. Every substantive and principal word m the titles of books; 
as, u Euclid's Elements of Geometry;" " Goldsmith's Deserted Vil- 



78. Other words, besides the preceding, may begin with capitals, when 
they are remarkably emphatical. or the principal subject of the composi- 
tion. 



ETYMOLOGY — WORDS. 



PART II. 



17 



ETYMOLOGY. 

79, Etymology treats of the different sorts of words, 
their various modifications, and their derivations. 



WORDS. 



80, A Word is an articulate sound used by common 
consent as the sign of an idea. 

81. A few words consist of vocal or vowel sounds only, without 
articulation ; as, 2, ah, aice, oh, owe, eye, &c. 

82,-1. Words, in respect of their Formation, are either 
Primitive or Derivative, Simple or Compound. 

83. A Primitive word is one that is not derived from any other 
word in the language ; as, boy, just, father. 

84. A Derivative word is one that is derived from some other 
word; as, doyish, justice, fatherly. 

85. A Simple word is one that is not combined with any other 
word ; as, man, house, city. 

86. A Compound, word is one that is made up of two or more 
simple words ; as, manhood, horseman. 

87.-2. Words, in respect of Form, are either Declin- 
able or Indeclinable. 

88. A Declinable word is one which undergoes certain changes of 
form or termination, to express the different relations of gender, 
number, case ; degree ; voice, mood, tense, person ; usually termed 
in Grammar Accidents; as, man, men; love, loves, loved, dc. 

89. In the changes which they undergo, Nouns and Pronouns are 
said to be declined, Verbs, to be inflected or conjugated, (473.) 

90. An Indeclinable word is one which undergoes no change of 
form ; as, good, some, perhaps. 



18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

91,-3. In respect of Signification and Use, words are 
divided into different classes, called Parts of Speech. 

92. The principle according to which words are classified is their use, or 
the part they perform in the expression of thought. Words which are 
names of objects are classed as nouns ; those which qualify nouns are 
adjectives ; those which attribute an action or state to some subject are 
verbs, &c. Hence, when the same word is used for different purposes — 
at one time as a name, at another to qualify a noun, and at another to 
express an action or state — it should, in parsing, be assigned to that class 
of words, the office of which it performs for the time: thus, "Before 
honor [noun] is humility." "Honor [verb] thy father and thy mother." 

93. Parsing is the art of resolving a sentence into 
its elements or parts of speech (574, 575). 

94. Parsing is distinguished into Etymological and Syntactical. 

95. A word is parsed EtymologicalYy by stating the class of words 
to which it belongs, with its accidents or grammatical properties. 

96. A word is passed Syntactically by stating, in addition, the 
relation in which it stands to other words, and the rules according 
to which they are combined in phrases and sentences. 

97. These two, though related, are perfectly distinct, and should not be 
mixed up in the early part of the student's course, by anticipating at the 
outset what he can be supposed to know, only at a more advanced stage. 
Such a course may seem to be more intellectual, but its tendency is only 
to perplex and darken the subject. Let the student learn one thing at a 
time, each thing thoroughly in its proper order, and continue to combine 
things learned, as far as it can be done without anticipating what is future. 
In this way the process will be simple and easy ; every step will be taken 
in the light, and when completed, the result will be satisfactory. Besides, 
the student must be able to parse etymologically with great ease and 
promptness, before he can with any advantage begin the study of syntax. 
This promptness he will acquire in a very short time, and almost without 
effort, if the class is properly drilled on the exercises furnished at every 
step in the following pages. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 

98. The Parts of Speech in English are nine, viz. : 
Noun, Article, Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, Adverb, Pre- 
position, Interjection, and Conjunction. 

99. Of these, the Noun, Pronoun and Verb, are de- 
clined; the rest are indeclinable, (88-90). 



ETYMOLOGY — NOUNS. 19 



NOUNS. 



153. A Noun is the name of any person, place, or thing ; 
as, John, London, book. Hence, 

The names of persons, places, or things, are Nouns. 

101 • Nouns are of two kinds, Proper and Common. 

102. A Proper Noun is the name applied to an indi- 
vidual only; as John, London, America, the Ohio. 

103, A Common Noun is a name applied to all things 
of the same sort; as, man, chair, table, book. 

104. Remarks. — Proper nouns are used to distinguish individuals of the 
same class from one another. Common nouns distinguish sorts or classes, 
and are equally applicable to all things of the same class. Thus, the com- 
mon noun boy is equally applicable to all objects of that class; but the 
proper nouns John, James, Robert, &c, are applicable only to particular 
individuals of a class. 

OBSERVATIONS jON NOUNS. 

105. When a proper noun is used to denote a whole class, it be- 
comes common, and generally has an article before it; as, u The 
twelve Ccesars? "He is the Cicero of his age," "A Daniel come to 
judgment." A Campbell, i. e., one of the Campbells. 

106. Common nouns become proper when personified (1046, 1), 
and also when used as proper names ; as, Hail, Liberty! The Park. 

107. Under common nouns are usually ranked — 

1. Collective nouns, or nouns of multitude, which signify many 

in the singular number ; as, army, people. 

2. Abstract nouns, or names of qualities ; as, piety, wickedness. 

3. Verbal nouns, or the names of actions, &c. ; as reading, writ- 

ing, sleeping. 

4. Diminutive nouns, or nouns derived from other nouns, and 

denoting a small one of the kind; as stream, streamlet; 
leaf, leaflet ; hill, hillock, &c. 

108. To the class of nouns belongs everything, whether word, letter, 
mark, or character, of which we can think, speak, or write, regarded 
merely as an object of thought, even when, as sometimes happens, we do 
not give it a name. Thus when we say, "Good" is an adjective, a is a 
vowel, b is a consonant, A is a capital, 4 is an even number^ J is a frac- 
tion, ? is a mark of interrogation, + is the sign of addition, — of sub- 
traction, == of equality — Good, a, b, A, 4, J, ?, +, — , =, are all to be 
regarded as nouns. 



20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

109. Remark.— A noun is also called a substantive. But this term for 
convenience is here used in a more comprehensive sense, to mean a noun, 
a personal pronoun or a phrase used as a noun, and usually called "a sub- 
stantive phrase." Thus in such a rule as this, "An adjective qualifies the 
substantive," &c, the word substantive may mean either a noun or pro- 
noun, or substantive phrase. ' 



EXERCISES 



* 



1. In the following list, distinguish proper nouns from common and 
give a reason for the distinction : — 

Albany, city, tree, nation, France, Philip, dog, horse, house, 
garden, Dublin, Edinburgh, London, river, Hudson, Ohio, 
Thames, countries, America, England, Ireland, Spain, sun, 
moon, stars, planets, Jupiter, Venus, Mars, man, woman, boy, 
girl, John, James, Mary, Susan, mountain, stream, valley. 

2. In the following sentences, point out the nouns. Say why they are 
nouns ; tell whether they are proper or common, and why. Thus : "Table " 
a noun, because the name of a thing; common, because applied to all 
things of the same sort. 

The table and chairs in this room belong to John; the book- 
case, writing-desk, and books, to his brother.— Time and tide 
wait for no man.— The largest city in Europe is London; in 
America, New York.— The northern states produce wheat, oats, 
barley, rye, corn and potatoes; while cotton, tobacco, rice and 
sugar, are the products of the south. 

S. Write down ten nouns, or names of persons or things, and say some- 
thing respecting each, so as to make a sentence ; thus :— 

Summer — summer is the warmest season of the year. 
4 Tell what words in the sentences so made, are nouns, and why 
which are proper, or common, and why. 



ACCIDENTS OF THE NOUN. 

110. The accidents of nouns are Person, Gender, 
Number, and Case. 

Note.— These accidents belong also to personal and relative 
pronouns (239). 



* The exercises furnished here, and throughout this work, are intended merely a« a 
specimen of the way in which the leading truths and facts in Grammar may be wrought 
into the minds of pupils, hj means of exercises properly devised. It is not, however ex- 
pected or desired that the teacher should limit himself to these Every active and in- 
genious teacher will devise such new and various methods of exercising his pupils as their 
age, capacity, and circumstances, and his own judgment and experience may surest, as 
best calculated to draw out their powers, and cultivate in them a habit of thinkiiU and 
reasoning for themselves. ° 



ETYMOLOGY — NOUNS — PERSON. 21 

PERSON. 

111. Person, in Grammar, is the distinction of nouns 
as used in discourse, to denote the speaker, the person 
or thing spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of. 
(120). Hence, 

112. There are three persons, called First, Second, and Third. 

113. A noun is in the first person, when it denotes the speaker ; 
as, " I, Paul, have written it." 

114. A noun is in the second person, when it denotes the person or 
thing addressed ; as, " Thou, God, seest me."— " Hail, Liberty!" 

115. A noun is in the third person, when it denotes the person or 
thing spoken of; as, " Washington was brave."— " Truth is mighty." 

116. Remark. — The third person is used sometimes for the first ; as, 
thy servant became surety for the lad to my father." Gen. xliv. 32. 
Sometimes, particularly in the language of supplication, it is used for 
the second; as, " let not the Lord be angry." Gen. xviii. 30. " Will 
the Lord bless us ! " 

OBSERVATIONS ON PERSON. 

117. The first and the second person can belong only to nouns de- 
noting persons, or things personified ; because persons only can 
speak or be spoken to. The third person may belong to all nouns, 
because every object, whether person or thing, may be spoken of. 

118. A noun can be the subject of a verb (595), only in the third 
person. A noun in the first or second person is never used as the 
subject of a verb, but only in apposition (668) with the first or second 
personal pronoun, for the sake of explanation or emphasis ; and 
sometimes in the second person, without a pronoun, as the object 
addressed. 

119. A noun in the predicate (600), is generally, though not al- 
ways, in the third person, even when the subject is in the first or 
second; as, "I am Alpha," &c, "who is." So with the pronouns 
/ and thou ; as, M I am he." " Thou art the man." 

120. Remark.— Person makes no change either in the meaning or form 
of a noun, but simply denotes the manner in which it is used, as above 
stated. Moreover, as the name of the speaker, or of the person spoken 
to, is seldom expressed (the pronouns 1 and thou, we and you, being used 
in their stead), it seems to be a useless waste of time, in parsing, to men- 
tion the person of a noun, unless it be in the first or second person, which 
will not happen more than once in a thousand times. Much time there- 
fore will be saved, and no loss sustained, if it be considered as taken for 
granted, without stating it, that a noun is in the third person, unless it be 
otherwise mentioned- 



22 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR- 



GENDER 

121. Gender is the distinction of nouns with regard 
to sex. Appendix I. 

122. There are three genders, Masculine, Feminine, 
and Neuter. 

123. Nouns denoting males are Masculine ; as, man, 
boy. 

124. Nouns denoting females are Feminine; as woman, 
girl. 

125. Nouns denoting neither males nor females, i. e., 
things without sex, are Neuter ; as, house, book, tree. 

126. Nouns which denote either males or females, such ^parent, 
neighbor, friend, &c, are sometimes, for the sake of convenience, 
said to be of the Common Gender, i. e., either masculine or feminine. 

127. There are three ways of distinguishing the sexes. 

1. By different words ; as, 



Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Bachelor 


maid 


Horse 


mare 


Beau 


belle 


Husband 


wife 


Boy 


girl 


King 


queen 


Brother 


sister 


Lord 


lady 


Buck 


doe 


Man 


woman 


Bull 


cow 


Master ? 


mistress 


Drake 


duck 


Nephew 


niece 


Earl 


countess 


Ram, buck 


ewe 


Father 


mother 


Son 


daughter 


Friar 


nun 


Stag 


hind 


Gander 


goose 


Uncle 


aunt 


Hart 


roe 


Wizard 


witch 


2. 


By a difference 


of termination ; as, 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Abbot 


abbess 


Arbiter 


arbitress 


Actor 


actress 


Author 


authoress 


Administrator administratrix 


Baron 


baroness 


Adulterer 


adulteress 


Bridegroom 


bride 


Ambassador 


ambassadress 


Benefactor 


benefactress 



ETYMOLOGY — NO UNS— GENDER. 



23 



Masculine. 
Count 
Deacon 
Duke 
Elector 
Emperor 
Enchanter 
Executor 
Governor 
Heir 
Hero 
Hunter 
Host 
Jew- 
Landgrave 
Lion 
Marquis 
Mayor 
Patron 

3. 



Feminine. 

countess 

deaconess 

duchess 

electress 

empress 

enchantress 

executrix 

governess 

heiress 

heroine 

huntress 

hostess 

Jewess 

landgravine 

lioness 

marchioness 

mayoress 

patroness 



Masculine. 

Peer 

Poet 

Priest 

Prince 

Prior 

Prophet 

Protector 

Shepherd 

Songster 

Sorcerer 

Sultan 

Tiger 

Traitor 

Tutor 

Viscount 

Votary 

"Widower 



Feminine. 
peeress 
poetess 
priestess 
princess 
prioress 
prophetess 
protectress 
shepherdess 
songstress 
sorceress 
( sultana, or 
/ taness 

tigress 
traitress 
tutoress 
viscountess 
votaress 
w T idow 



sul- 



By prefixing a distinguishing word ; as, 



Sparrow. 

Goat. 

Servant. 

Child. 

Descendants. 



Masculine. 
A cock sparrow. 
A he goat. 
A man servant. 
A male child. 
Male descendants. 



Feminine. 
A hen sparrow. 
A she goat. 
A maid servant. 
A female child. 
Female descendants. 



OBSERVATIONS ON GENDER. 

128. Many masculine nouns have no corresponding feminine ; as, 
laker, orewer, &c. : and some feminine nouns have no corresponding 
masculine; as, laundress, seamstress, &c. 

129. Some nouns naturally neuter, are often, by a figure of speech 
(1046, 1), converted into the masculine or feminine ; as, when we 
say of the sun, " He is setting ; " of the moon, " She is eclipsed ; " 
or of a ship, " She sails." 

130. Remark. — This inferior species of personification, peculiar to the 
English language, is often used with great beauty to impart animation 
and liveliness to the style, without rendering it inflated or passionate. 
No certain rule, however, can be given as to the gender assumed, except 
that nouns denoting objects distinguished for strength or boldness, are 
usually regarded as masculine, while, on the other hand, those denoting ob- 
jects noted for softness, beauty, and gracefulness, are considered feminine. 



24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

131 • In speaking of animals whose sex is not known to us, or not re- 
garded, we assign the masculine gender to those distinguished for bold- 
ness, fidelity, generosity, size, strength, &c, as the dog, the horse, the 
elephant. Thus we say, the dog is remarkably various in his species." 
On the other hand, we assign the feminine gender to animals character- 
ized by weakness and timidity; as the hare, the cat, &c. ; thus, " The 
cat, as she beholds the light, draws the ball of her eye small and long." 

132. In speaking of animals, particularly those of inferior size, we 
frequently consider them without sex, or of the neuter gender. Thus, 
of an infant, we say, " It is a lovely creature ; " of a cat, " It is cruel to 
its enemy. 

133. When the male and female are expressed by distinct terms, as, 
shepherd, shepherdess, the masculine term has sometimes also a general 
meaning, expressing both male and female, and is always to be used when 
the office, occupation, profession, &c, and not the sex of the individual, 
is chiefly to be expressed. The feminine term is used only when the 
discrimination of sex is necessary. Thus, when it is said, "the Poets of 
this country are distinguished for correctness of taste," the term " Poets" 
clearly includes both male w&& female writers of poetry. But, " the best 
Poetess of the age," would be said when speaking only of females. 

134. Collective nouns, when the reference is to the aggregate as 
one whole, or when they are in the plural number, are considered 
as neuter ; as, " The army destroyed every thing in its course ; " but 
when the reference is to the objects composing the collection as indi- 
viduals, they take the gender of the individuals referred to. 

EXERCISES. 

1. What is the feminine of — Father, prince, king, master, 
actor, emperor, bridegroom, stag, buck, hart, nephew, friar, 
priest, heir, hero, Jew, host, hunter, sultan, executor, horse, 
lord, husband, brother, son, bull, he-goat, &c. ? 

2. What is the masculine of— Lady, woman, girl, niece, nun, 
aunt, belle, duchess, abbess, empress, heroine, wife, sister, 
mother, hind, roe, mare, hen-sparrow, shepherdess, daughter, 
ewe, goose, queen, songstress, widow, &c. ? 

3. Tell of what gender the following nouns are, and why. 

Man, horse, tree, field, father, house, mother, queen, count, 
lady, king, prince, castle, tower, river, stone, hen, goose, seam- 
stress, mountain, cloud, air, sky, hand, foot, head, body, limb, 
lion, tiger, mayor, countess ; — friend, neighbor, parent, teacher, 
assistant, guide; — sun (129), moon, earth, ship ;— cat, (132), 
mouse, fly, bird, elephant, hare. 

4. Take any of the above words, and say something respecting the 
person or thing which it denotes, so as to make a sentence ; thus, " My 
father is at home." 



ETYMOLOGY — NOUNS —NUMBER . 25 

NUMBER. 

135. Number is that property of a noun by which it 
expresses one, or more than one. 

136. Nouns have two numbers, the Singular and the 
Plural. The singular denotes one; as, book, tree: the 
plural, more than one; as, books, trees. 

GENERAL RULE. 

137. The plural is commonly formed by adding s to 
the singular ; as, book, books. 

SPECIAL RULES. 

138. Rule 1. — Nouns in s, sh, ch soft, z, x, or o, form 
the plural by adding es; as, Miss, Misses; brush, brushes, 
match, matches; topaz, topazes ; fox, foxes , hero, heroes. 

139. Exceptions. — Nouns in eo, io, and yo, haves only ; as, cameo, 
cameos; folio, folios; embryo, embryos. So also, canto, cantos. 
Junto, tyro, grotto, portico, solo, halo, quarto, formerly had s only 
in the plural ; but now more commonly es under the Rule ; as, junto, 
juntoes, &c. Nouns in cli sounding k, add s only; as, monarch, 
monarchs. See also 144. 

140. Whenever s or es will not coalesce with the final syllable, it 
adds a syllable to the word; as, age, pi. ages; box, boxes. But 
where s or es will coalesce, it does not add a syllable; as, book, 
books ; cargo, cargoes. The s will make an additional syllable only 
after e final, preceded by g or an s-sound ; as, cage, cages ; race, 
races ; rose, roses. Us will coalesce, and so not add a syllable, only 
after o; as, echo, echoes. 

141 • Rule 2. — Nouns in y after a consonant, change 
y into ies in the plural; as, lady, ladies. But 

Nouns in y after a vowel, and all proper nouns in y, 
follow the general rule (137); as, day, days; the Pom- 
peys, the Tullys, &c. 

142. Rule 3. — Nouns in forfe, change /or fe into 
ves in the plural: as, loaf, loaves; life, lives. 
2 



26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

143. Exceptions. — Dwarf, scarf, reef; brief, chief, grief; kerchief, 
handkerchief, mischief; gulf, turf, surf; safe, fife, strife ; proof, 
hoof, reproof, follow the general rule. Also nouns in^' have their 
plural in s; as, muff, muffs; except staff, plural staves ; but its 
compounds are regular; as, flagstaff, flag staffs ; wharf has either 
wharfs or wharves. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Give the plural of the following nouns, and the rule for forming it; 
thus, Fox, plural, foxes. Rule — Nouns in s, .s/*, ch soft, z, x s or o, form 
the plural by adding es. Or, more briefly ; Nouns in x form the plural by 
adding es. 

Fox, book, leaf, candle, hat, loaf, wish, fish, sex, box, coach, 
inch, sky, bounty, army, duty, knife, echo, loss, cargo, wife, 
story, church, table, glass, study, calf, branch, street, potato, 
peach, sheaf, booby, rock, stone, house, glory, hope, flower, city, 
difficulty, distress, wolf. 

Day, bay, relay, chimney, journey, valley, needle, enemy, 
army, vale, ant, valley, hill, sea, key, toy, monarch, tyro, grotto, 
nuncio, punctilio, embryo, gulf, handkerchief, hoof, staff, muff, 
cliff, whiff, cuff, ruff, reef, safe, wharf, fief. 

2. Of what number is — Book, trees, plant, shrub, globes, 
planets, toys, home, fancy, mosses, glass, state, foxes, houses, 
prints, spoon, bears, lilies, roses, churches, glove, silk, skies, 
hill, river, scenes, stars, berries, peach, porch, glass, pitcher, 
valleys, mountain, cameos ? 

3. Take six of the above words, and say something respecting each ; 
first in the singular, and then in the plural. 

NOUNS IRREGULAR IN THE PLURAL. 

144. Some nouns are irregular in the formation of their plural ; 
such as — 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 




Plural. 


Man 


men 


Tooth 




teeth 


Woman 


women 


Goose 




geese 


Child 


children 


Mouse 




mice 


Foot 


feet . 


Louse 




lice 


Ox 


oxen 


Cow 


formerly 


kine 



but now regular, cows 
145. Some nouns have both a regular and an irregular form of the 
plural, but with different significations ; as — 





ETYMOLO GY — NOUNS — NUMBER. 


Singular. 






Plural. 


Brother 




(one of the same family) 


brothers 


Brother 




(one of the same society) 


brethren 


Die 




(a stamp for coining) 


dies 


Die 




(a small cube for gaming) 


dice 


Genius 




(a man of genius) 


geniuses 


Genius 




(a kind of spirit) 


genii 


Index 




(a table of reference) 


indexes 


Index 




(a sign in algebra) 


indices 


Pea 




(as a distinct seed) 


peas 


Pea 




(as a species of grain) 


pease 


Sow- 




(an individual animal) 


sows 


Sow or swine 

Ponnv 


(the species) 


swine 
pennies 


x tJiiiJ y 






Penny 




(a sum or value) 


pence 


146, Note.- 


-Though pence is plural, yet 


such expressions 



27 



as 

fourpence, sixpence, &c., as the name of a sum, or of a coin repre- 
senting that sum, is often regarded as singular, and so capable of a 
plural ; as, " Three fourpences, or two sixpences, make a shilling." 
"A new sixpence is heavier than an old one." 

147. Compounds ending mful or full, and generally those which 
have the important word last, form the plural regularly ; as, spoon- 
ful, cupful, coachful, handful, mouse-trap, ox-cart, court-yard, 
earner a-obscur a, &c. ; plural, spoonfuls, cupfuls, coaclifuls, &c. 

148, Compounds in which the principal word stands first, plural- 
ize the first word ; as — 



Singular. 
Commander-in-chief 
Aid-de-camp 
Knight- errant 
Court-martial 
Cousin-german 
Father-in-law, &c. 
Man-servant changes both ; as, 
servants, Jen igh ts- temp lars. 

149. The compounds of man form the plural as the simple word ; 
as, fisherman, fishermen. But nouns accidentally ending in man, 
and not compounds of man, form the plural by the general rule ; 
as, Turcoman, Mussulman, talisman; plural, Turcomans, Mus- 
sulmans, &c. 

150. Proper names, when pluralized, and other parts of speech 



Plural. 
commanders-in-chief 
aids-de-camp 
knights-errant 
courts-martial 
cousins-german 
fathers-in-law, &c. 
men-servants. So also, women- 



28 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



used as nouns, or mere names, form the plural like nouns of similar 
endings ; as, the Aristotles, the Solaris, the Mariuses, the Pompeys, 
the Oiceros ; the ayes and noes, the ins and the outs ; by sixes and 
sevens, by fifties ; three fourths, two halves; "His a;i^ and his 
<?rs;" " One of the outs is superfluous." 

151* Exception. — Such words ending in y after a consonant, fol- 
low the general rule (137), and not the special rule (141); as, the 
Livys, the Tullys, the Henrys — " The whys and the oys." 

152, Letters, marks, and numerical figures, are made plural by 
adding V; as, u Dot your i J s, and cross your tis" — -/'Your s's are 
not well made." — " The +'s and — 's are not in line." — " Four 6's 
weight 8VM*f« give place to OV 

153, Note. — Some good writers form the plural of proper names, &c., 
in this way ; as, the Mariuses, the Pompeys — the why's and the where- 
fores. But this is unnecessary and should be avoided. 

154, Words adopted without change from foreign languages, gen- 
erally retain their original plural. As a general rule, nouns in um 
or on, have a in the plural. Latin nouns in is, in the plural change 
is into es ; Greek nouns in is, change is into ides : Latin nouns in a 
change a into 03 ; but Greek nouns change a into ata in the plural. 
The following are the most common, some of which, however, from 
common use, have become so much a part of the English language 
as to have also the regular English form of the plural. In the fol- 
lowing table, these are indicated by the letter R. 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Alumnus 


alumni 


Chrysalis 


chrysalides 


Alumna 


alumnae 


Crisis 


crises 


Amanuensis 


amanuenses 


Criterion 


criteria 


Analysis 


analyses 


Datum 


data 


Animalculum 


animalcula, R. 


Desideratum 


desiderata 


Antithesis 


antitheses 


Diaeresis 


diaereses 


Apex 


apices, R. 


Effluvium 


effluvia 


Appendix 


appendices, R. 


Ellipsis 


ellipses 


Arcanum 


arcana 


Emphasis 


emphases 


Automaton 


automata, R. 


Encomium 


encomia, R. 


Axis 


axes 


Ephemeris 


ephemerides 


Bandit 


banditti 


Erratum 


errata 


Basis 


bases 


Focus 


foci 


Beau 


beaux, R. 


Formula 


formulae, R. 


Calx 


calces, R. 


Fungus 


fungi, funguses 


Gherub 


cherubim, R. 


Genius 


genii (145) 



ETYMOLOGY — NOUNS — NUMBER. 



29 



Singular. 
Genus 


Plural. 
genera 


Singular. 
Nebula 


Plural. 
nebulae 


Gymnasium 
Hypothesis 
Ignis fatuus 


gymnasia, R. 
hypotheses 
ignes fatui 


Oasis 

Parenthesis 

Phenomenon 


oases 

parentheses 

phenomena 


Index {a pointer) 
IndexO'ft algebra 
Lamina 


indexes 
) indices 
laminae 


Radius 

Scholium 

Seraph 


radii 

scholia, R. 
seraphim, R, 


Larva 


larvae 


Speculum 


specula 


Magus 


magi 


Stamen 


stamina, R. 


Medium 


media, R. 


Stimulus 


stimuli 


Memorandum 


memoranda, R. 


Stratum 


strata 


Metamorphosis 
Miasma 


metamorphoses 
miasmata 


Thesis 
Vertebra 


theses 
vertebrae 


Momentum 


momenta, R. 


Vertex 


vertices, R. 


Monsieur 


messieurs 


Virtuoso 


virtuosi 


Mr. {master') 


messrs. (masters) 


i Vortex 


vortices, R. 



EXERCISES ON NOUNS IRREGULAR IN NUMBER. 

Give the plural of — Man, foot, penny, mouse, ox, child, 
woman, brother, goose, tooth ; — sow, die, court-martial, father- 
in-law, son-in-law ; cupful, coachful, spoonful ; — erratum, me- 
dium, radius, genius, lamina, automaton, phenomenon, stratum, 
axis, ellipsis, stamen, index, cherub, seraph, &c. 

Of what number is — Dice, arcana, fishermen, geese, dormice, 
alms, riches, thanks, snuffers, tongs, teeth, woman, child, court- 
martial, apparatus, miasma, genii, geniuses, indices, indexes, 
mathematics, Matthew, James, John? 

OBSERVATIONS ON NUMBER. 

155. Some nouns are used in the singular only. Such are the 
names of metals y virtues, vices, arts, sciences, abstract qualities, and 
things iceighed or measured; as, gold, meekness, piety., idleness, 
intemperance, sculpture, geometry, wisdom, flour, milk, &c. Except 
when different sorts of things are expressed ; as, wines, teas, sugars, 
liquors, &c. 

156. Some nouns are used in the plural only ; as, annals, antipo- 
des, archives, assets, ashes, billiards, bitters, breeches, clothes, calends, 
colors (military banners), dregs, goods, hysterics, ides, intestines, 
literati, lees, letters (literature), minutiae, manners, morals, nones, 
orgies, pleiads or pleiades, shambles, tidings, thanks, vespers, vitals, 



30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

victuals: Also, things consisting of two parts ; as, bellows, drawers 
hose, nippers; pincers, pliers, snuffers, scissors, shears, tongs, &c. 

A few words usually plural, viz., bowels, embers, entrails, lungs, 
have sometimes a singular, denoting a part or portion of that ex- 
pressed by the plural ; as, bowel, lung, &c. 

15T. Some nouns are alike in both numbers ; as, deer, sheep, swine, 
vermin; grouse, salmon, tench, trout; apparatus, hiatus, series, 
congeries, species, superficies ; head (in the sense of individual), cat- 
tle; certain building materials; as, brick, stone, plank, joist in 
mass; alsojfoA and sometimes fowl, denoting the class. But sev- 
eral of these, in a plural sense, denoting individuals have the regu- 
lar plural also ; as, salmons, trouts, fishes, fowls, &c. 

158, The words brace, couple, pair, yoke, dozen, score, gross, hun- 
dred, thousand, and some others, after adjectives of number, are 
either singular or plural ; as, a brace, a dozen, a hundred ; two 
brace, three dozen, six hundred, &c. But without an adjective of 
number, or in other constructions, and particularly after in, by, &c, 
in a distributive sense, most of these words, in the plural, assume a 
plural form ; as, " In braces and dozens" — " By scores and hundreds." 
" Worth thousands" 

159. 1. The following words, plural in form, are sometimes singu- 
lar, but most commonly plural in signification, viz. : amends, means, 
riches, pains (meaning laborious efforts), odds, alms, wages ; and the 
names of certain sciences ; as, mathematics, ethics, optics, acoustics, 
metaphysics, politics, pneumatics, hydrostatics, &c. 

2. Means and amends, referring to one object, are singular ; to 
more than one, plural. Mean, in the singular form, is now used to 
signify the middle between two extremes. Alms (prtmesse, Anglo- 
Saxon) and riches (richesse, French) are really singular, though 
now used commonly in a plural sense. JVews, formerly singular or 
plural, is now mostly singular. Molasses and measles, though end- 
ing like a plural, are singular, and are so used. Oats is generally 
plural ; gallows is both singular and plural, though a distinct plural 
form, gallowses, is also in use. 

160, The following are singular in form, but in construction vari- 
ous ; thus, foot and horse, meaning bodies of troops, and people, mean- 
ing persons, are always construed as plural; cannon, shot, sail, 
cavalry, infantry, as singular or plural. People, (also folk), when 
it signifies a community or body of persons, is a collective noun, 
in the singular, and sometimes, though rarely, takes a plural form ; 
as, " Many peoples and nations." Rev. x. 11. 



ETYMOLOGY — NOUNS — CASE. 31 

THE PLURAL OF PROPER NAMES. 
161. Proper names for the most part want the plural ; but — 

1. Proper names without a title are used in the plural, when they 
refer to a race or family; as, "The Campbells" u the Stuarts;" or 
to several persons of the same name; as, " The twelve Ccesars ;" or 
when they are used to denote character ; as, "The Giceros of the 
age." 

2. Proper names with the title of Mrs. prefixed, or with any title, 
preceded by the numerals, two, three, &c, pluralize the name, and 
not the title; as, "The Mrs. Howards;" "the two Miss Mortons;" 
"the two Mr. Henrys." 

3. But when several persons of the same name are spoken of in- 
dividually, and distinguished by a particular appellation, or when 
persons of different names are spoken of together, the title only, 
and not the name is made plural ; as, " Misses Julia and Mary Rob- 
inson ;" "Messrs. George and Andrew Thomson;" " Messrs. Pratt, 
Woodford & Co. 

Thus far, usage and the rule are settled and uniform ; but — 

4. In other cases, usage is still unsettled. Some writers, perhaps 
the majority, pluralize the title and not the name; as, "The Misses 
Brown ; " " the Messrs. Harper." Others, of equal authority, regard- 
ing the title as a sort of adjective, or the whole as a compound name, 
pluralize the name, and not the title ; as, " The Miss Browns ; " " the 
Mr. Harpers." This form is more common in conversation, and, 
being less stiff and formal, is more likely to prevail. A few improp- 
erly pluralize both name and title ; as, " The Misses Browns; " " the 
Messrs. Harpers." 

5. Names, with other titles prefixed, follow the same analogy ; as, 
44 Lords Wellington and Lynedoch ; " " the lords bishops of Durham 
and St. David's;" 44 the generals Scott and Taylor." 



CASES OF NOUNS. 



162. Case is the state or condition of a noun with 
respect to the other words in a sentence. See 164-166. 

163. Nouns in English have three cases, the Nominor 
live, Possessive y &ii(l Objective. 



•32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

164, The Nominative case is used — 

1. When a noun is used simply as the name of an object. 

2. When it is used as that of which something is affirmed ; as, 

u Jo hn reads." 

3. When it is used as a predicate (600); as, " John is a good boy." 

4. When it is used absolutely, or independent of any other word ; 

as, " Absalom, my son ! " 

165, The Possessive case connects with the name of an object, the 
idea of origin, possession, or fitness ; as, The surfs rays ; John 1 8 
book ; a boy's cap ; men's shoes. 

106, The Objective case is used — 

1. To denote the object of a transitive verb (317) in the active 

voice (368); as, " James assists Thomas." 

2. To denote the object of a relation expressed by a preposition 

(538); as, u They live in London." 

3. To denote time, value, weight, or measure, without a governing 

word (828); as, " James is ten years old." 

GENERAL RULES. 

167 • The nominative and the objective of nouns are 
alike. 

168, The possessive singular is formed by adding an 
apostrophe and s to the nominative ; as, John's. 

169, When the plural ends in s, the possessive is 
formed by adding an apostrophe only; as, ladies'. But 
when the plural does not end in s, both the apostrophe 
and s are added; as, men's, children's. 

DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 

170, Nouns are thus declined — 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Singular. 

Nom. Lady ladies Man men John 

Poss. Lady's ladies' Man's men's John's 

Obj. Lady ladies Man men John 

171, Proper names for the most part want the plural (161). 

OBSERVATIONS ON THE POSSESSIVE. 

172, The 's in the possessive case is evidently an abbreviation for the 
old English termination of the genitive in es or is. Thus, " The king's 
crown" was written, " The kingis crown." That 5 is not an abbreviation. 



ETYMOLOG f — NOUNS — PO SSESSIVE. 33 

for his, as some have supposed, is manifest from the fact, that it is used 
where his could not be properly employed; thus, woman's, men's, child- 
ren s, book?s, &c, can not be resolved into woman his, men his, children 
his, &c. 

The apostrophe (') after s in the plural, is not a mark of abbreviation, 
but is used, in modern times, merely as a sign of the possessive. Its use 
in the plural is but of recent date. 

173. When the nominative singular ends in ss, or in letters of a 
similar sound, though to retain the 5 after the apostrophe is never 
wrong, yet, as a matter of taste, it is sometimes omitted in order to 
avoid harshness, or too close a succession of hissing sounds ; as, 
u For goodness' sake;' 1 u for conscience' sake;" so also "Moses' 
disciples;" " Jesus' feet." 

174. Note. — There is considerable diversity of opinion and usage on 
this point. Some few insist on retaining s after the apostrophe in every 
position ; as, " Xanthus's stock of patience." — L Estrange. Others drop 
the s only before a word beginning with an s or an s-sound, as above ; 
while others drop the s wherever the use of it would produce harshness, 
or difficulty of pronunciation. Though in this last, the usage which omits 
the s is less prevalent and less accurate than that which retains it, yet, 
from the sanction it has obtained — from the stiffness and harshness which 
retaining the s often occasions — and from the tendency in all spoken lan- 
guage to abbreviation and euphony, it seems destined to prevail against 
all arguments to the contrary, 

175. Remark. — In written language, the omission of the s occasions 
but little inconvenience ; for the apostrophe sufficiently indicates the case, 
and the construction will generally indicate the number. In spoken lan- 
guage, however, the use of the s is more necessary, to avoid obscurity, 
especially in proper names. Thus, in spoken language, " Davy's Survey- 
ing," and " Davies' Surveying," sound precisely alike, though the names 
are different. Hence, to indicate the last name correctly in speaking, it 
will be more accurate, though less euphonic, to say, "Davies's Surveying." 
Thus, also, " Perkins' Arithmetic," "Sparks' Analysis," in spoken lan- 
guage, may be mistaken for "Perkin's Arithmetic," "Spark's Analysis." 
In such cases, precision will be secured at the expense of euphony, by 
retaining the s, while euphony will be attained, frequently at the expense 
of precision, by dropping it. 

176. The meaning of the possessive may, in general, be expressed by 
the word of with the objective; thus, for "?na?i > s wisdom," "virtues re- 
ward," we may say, "the wisdom of man" "the reward of virtue" This 
mode will generally be preferred, when the use of the possessive would 
appear stiff or awkward; thus, "the length of the day," is better than 
"the day's length." In some few words which want the possessive plural, 
such as father-in-law, court-martial, &c, this is the only substitute. These 
two modes of expression, however, are not always equivalent ; thus, "the 
king's picture," means any picture belonging to the king ; "a picture of 
the king," means a portrait of him, without saying to whom it belongs. 
So also, of with the objective, can not always be represented by the pos- 
sessive ; as, "A piece of gold ," "a cord of wood" " the house of repre- 
sentatives" &c. 2* 



34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

PARSING (93) THE NOUN. 

177i A noun is parsed etymologically, by stating its 
accidents, or grammatical properties (110) , as exempli- 
fied (182). 

178, Note. — The possessive is easily known by its form. As the nom- 
inative and objective of nouns are alike, in parsing nouns in the following 
lists, ail nouns not in the possessive, may be said to be in the nominative. 
The method of distinguishing the nominative and objective will be ex- 
plained in its proper place. As person belongs, not to the form, but to 
the relations of the noun, the mention of it may be omitted for the present. 

179, N. B. — In all parsing, much time will be saved, if the pupil be 
accustomed to say every thing necessary to be said, at once, without wait- 
ing to have each particular drawn from him by a question — to say it in 
the shortest possible manner — and also to say the same things always in 
the same order. Every teacher will of course select that order which he 
prefers. The order here directed may perhaps be acceptable to most 
teachers (182). 

180, As it makes no difference in the construction of a sentence, whether 
a noun be proper or common, there seems to be little or no advantage 
in mentioning this distinction in parsing. Some accordingly omit this, 
as well as person in parsing, for the sake of brevity — an object worthy of 
consideration in a large school, where economy of time is important. Or, 
when a proper noun occurs, which is comparatively seldom, it may be 
mentioned, taking it always for granted that a noun is common when not 
otherwise mentioned. This appears to be sufficient for every purpose. 

PRELIMINARY ORAL EXERCISE. 

181, In proceeding to parse the noun, the teacher, if he thinks proper, 
may begin by some such inductive process as the following : The class 
having gone through the preceding definitions and rules, the teacher may 
call on some one to mention the name of any thing he sees, or happens to 
think of ; and suppose he mentions the words house, tree, book, desk, pen, 
&c, let these words be written on the blackboard. He may then call on 
another, and another, in the same way, still writing the names as men- 
tioned. In this way the pupils will furnish a list of exercises for them- 
selves. The teacher may then take the first of these, " house," and write 
it by itself on the board, at the left hand, and proceed with some such 
questions as the following, the answers to which, from what has been 
previously learned, will be obvious, and readily given : — 

Is House the name of any thing ? 

What part of speech is the name of a thing ? 

Then, what part of speech is House? Ans. U A noun. 1 '' 

(After the word house on the board how write the word " noW.) 
What is a noun ? — How many kinds of nouns are there ? 
What is a proper noun ? — what a common noun ? 
Is the word house proper or common ? Ans. Common. Why ? 

fThen after the word "worn" write the word common, as before.) 
What are the properties or accidents of the noun ? 
What is gender? — How many genders are there? 



ETYMOLOGY — NOUNS. 35 

What nouns are masculine ? — what feminine ? — what neuter ? 

To which of these does the word house belong ? Ans. Neuter, Why ? 

(Then write the word neuter after common, as above.) 
What is the next property of the noun ? 
What is number ? — How many numbers are there ? 
What does the singular denote? — the plural? 
Does House denote one or more than one ? 
Of what number then is House? Ans. Singular. 

(Now add as above the word singular.) 
What is the next property of a noun ? 
How many cases are there ? Name them. 
Decline House in the singular : in the plural. 

Which of these cases is used when a noun is mentioned simply as the 
name of an object (164, 1.)? 

House being used in this manner here, in what case is it ? Ans. In the 
Nominative. ^ 

(Then write nominative at the end, as above.) \ 
There will now have been written on the blackboard the following : — 
House, Noun, Common, Neuter, Singular, Nominative. 
The teacher may then ask, as a sort of review, why do you call house, 
a noun ? — why, common $ — why, neuter ? — why, singular ? — why, the 
nominative /—requiring a distinct answer to each question. And lastly, 
he may require the pupil to state these reasons in order, without the 
questions being asked ; thus : — 

House — a Noun, because the name of a thing ; 

Common, because it belongs to all things of the sort ; 
Neuter, because without sex ; 
Singular, because it denotes one, plural, houses ; 
Nominative, because it is used only as a name (164-1.) 

By repeating this process a few times, occasionally, all that belongs to 
the parsing of a noun will become so familiar, and so clearly understood, 
as to be always easy. 

182. In parsing, these accidents may be stated, either in the order 
above, or in such as the teacher prefers. Some say, "A common neu- 
ter noun, in the nominative singular" Others prefer, as giving 
more prominence to the accidents, and sufficiently euphonious, to 
say, "A noun, common, neuter, in the nominative singular; — or 
omitting the hind of noun, except when a proper noun occurs, for 
reasons stated (180), to say more briefly, "A noun, neuter, in the 
nominative singular" This last method is the one here recom- 
mended, as being brief and sufficiently descriptive. 

EXERCISES. 

1. State the gender, case, and number of the following nouns, and 
always in the same order; thus, " Father, a, noun, masculine, in the nom- 
inative, singular.^ 

Father, brothers, mother's, boys, book, loaf, arms, wife, hats 



36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

sisters', bride's, bottles, brush, goose, eagles' wings, echo, ox's 
horn, mouse, kings, queens, bread, child's toy, grass, tooth, tongs, 
candle, chair, Jane's boots, Robert's shoe, horse, bridle. 

2. Go over the same list, giving a reason for everything stated ; thus, 
"Father, a noun, because the name of an object; masculine, because it 
denotes a male ; nominative, because mentioned simply as the name of an 
object (164-1) ; singular, because it denotes one." 



THE ARTICLE. 
183cAn Article is a word put before a noun, to indi- 
cate the manner in which it is used (707 &c.) 
I 184. There are two articles, a or an and the. 

185. A or an is called the indefinite article, because it shows that 
its noun denotes a person or thing indefinitely, or without distinction ; 
as, A man, i. e., any man, or some man, without stating which one. 

186. A is used before a consonant ; as, a ooolc : also before a 
vowel, or diphthong, which combines with its sound the power of 
initial y, or w ; as, a unit, a use,, a eulogy, a ewe, many a one. 

1ST, An is used before a vowel or silent h ; as, an age, an hour ; 
also before words beginning with h sounded, when the accent is on 
the second syllable ; as, an heroic action, an historical account ; — 
because h in such words is but slightly sounded. 

188. Note. — The primary form of this article is An (ane). The n 
has been dropped before a consonant, from regard to euphony. 

189. A or an is sometimes used in the sense of one, each, every ; 
as, " Six cents a pound ; " "two shillings a yard;" "one dollar a 
day ; " " four hundred a year." 

190. Remark. — In the expressions a hunting, a fishing, agoing, a run- 
ning, a building, and the like ; also, in the expressions, now nearly obso- 
lete, "a Wednesdays," "anights," " a pieces," &c, a is equivalent to at, 
to, in, on, and is to be regarded, not as an article, but as a preposition 
(548). In the same sense, it is used as a prefix in such words as afloat, 
ashore, asleep, abed, &c. 

191. The is called the definite article, because it shows that its 
noun is used definitely, and refers to some particular person or thing ; 
as, the man, i. e., some particular man ascertained or pointed out. 
See Syntax (707-2). 

192. Note. — The article is sometimes said to limit the signification of 
a noun, and is therefore called a " definitive." This is scarcely correct. 
A noun with a or an prefixed, is always used in an individual sense, to 
denote one of a class. But this being for the most part sufficiently indi- 



ETYMOLOGY — ARTICLE. 37 

cated by the singular number, the use of the article to mark the individ- 
ual is necessary only in the few cases in which the noun, in the singular 
number, is used in a generic, as well as individual sense. Thus, the terms 
man, woman, oak, &c, without an article, mean the species ; but with a or 
an prefixed, they mean the individual ; as, a man, a woman, an oak. So 
far only can a or an properly be said to. limit, or perform the part of a 
definitive. In other respects, it rather shows the want of limitation. 

19$. In like manner, the article the commonly indicates that its noun is 
limited, and refers to some particular person or thing, but still the article 
is not the limiting word. A noun may be limited in a variety of ways ; by 
notoriety or eminence, by previous mention, by an adjective, a possessive, 
a relative clause, a preposition and its case, &c. ; but never by the article, 
except perhaps in the case of previous mention, and even that is doubtful. 
Thus, when we say, u The red book," "the boy's book," "the hookwhich 
we lost," "the book on the table," we perceive that the word book, follow- 
ing the, is limited — not, however, by the article, but by the words red, 
boy's, &c. This fact constitutes a specific difference between the article 
and the adjective : the adjective always describes or limits its noun (195) ; 
the article does not, but is only a sort of index, to give previous notice 
that the noun is used in a particular way. 

194, Parsing. — The article is parsed by stating wheth- 
er it is definite or indefinite , and to what noun it belongs ; 
thus, " A book." A is the indefinite article, and belongs 
to book. 

EXERCISES. 



Is it proper to say — a man, 
a apple, 
a house, 


or an man? 
or an apple ? 
or an house ? 


why? 
why? 
why ? 


a hour, 


or an hour ? 


why? 


a unicorn, 


or an unicorn ? 


why? 


a ewe, 


or an ewe, 


why? 



1. Prefix the indefinite article a or an correctly to the following words. 

2. Tell which words are nouns, and why — parse them (177) — decline 
them. 

Chair, table, horse, cart, book, house, garden, bird, owl" egg, 
ear, eye, tree, cow, unit, use, old man, young man, word, hook, 
pot, bench, desk, room, oven, oak, eulogy, ewe, uncle, aunt; — 
open wagon, useful contrivance, round stone, old hat. 

3. In the following, correct such as are wrong, and give a reason for 
the change ; — parse the articles and nouns. 

An cup, a door, a apple, a pear, a ounce, a pound, an hat, an 
wig, an eulogy, an youth, a honor, a heir, a crow, a ostrich, a 
pen — a ugly beas* , a useful tree, an humming-bird, an neat 
cottage, a upper room, an huge monster. 



38 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

THE ADJECTIVE. 

195. An Adjective is a word used to qualify a sub- 
stantive (109) ; as, "A good boy ; " "a square box ; " 
" ten dollars ; " u we found him poor" 

196, A noun is qualified by an adjective, when the object named is 
thereby described, limited, or distinguished from other things of the same 
name. This is done two ways : — 

1. Certain adjectives connect with their nouns some quality by which 
the objects named are described or distinguished from others of the same 
kind; as, "A red flag;" "an amusing story." Such are common and 
participial adjectives (202). 

2. Others merely limit, without expressing any quality ; as, "An Amer- 
ican book;" " ten dollars;" " last week;" "this year;" "every day," 
&c. Such are circumstantial, numeral, and definitive adjectives (202), 

19T. Adjectives, as predicates, may qualify an infinitive mood, or 
clause of a sentence used as a substantive; as, " To play is pleas- 
ant" — " That the rich are happy is not always true." 

198, Several adjectives sometimes qualify the same noun ; as, "A 
smooth, round stone. " «*&* 

199, An adjective is sometimes used to qualify the meaning of 
another adjective, the two forming a sort of compound adjective ; 
as, "A bright-red color ; " " a darh-blue coat ;" " a cast-iron ball." 

200, When other parts of speech are used to qualify or limit a 
noun or pronoun, they perform the part of an adjective, and should 
be parsed as such ; thus, 

Noun ; as, A gold ring ; silver cup, sea water, a stone bridge. 
Pronouns ; as, A he bear ; a she wolf. 

Adverbs ; as, Is the child well ? for very age ; the then king. 
Prepositions ; as, The above remark ; the under side. 

201, On the contrary, adjectives without a substantive are some- 
times used as nouns ; as, " God rewards the good, and punishes the 
bad" — " The virtuous are the most happy." Adjectives used in 
this way are usually preceded by the, and when applied to persons, 
are for the most part considered plural. 

DIVISION OF ADJECTIVES. 

202, Adjectives are sometimes divided into the following classes, viz. : 

1. Common, which express quality ; as, good, bad, sweet, &c. 

2. Circumstantial, which express circumstances of time, place, nation, 

&c. ; as, daily, eastern, English, American, &c. 

3. Numeral, which express number ; as, one, two, three ; first, second, &c. 

4. Participial, consisting of participles, or compounds of participles 

used as adjectives; as, "An amusing story;" u an unmerited re- 
buke ;" "to pass unmolested^ Some add — 



ETYMOLOGY — ADJECTIVES. 39 

5. Definitive, which do not express any property of an object, but 
merely point it out, or limit in various ways the meaning of the 
noun. To this class belong such words as this, that, each, every, 
some, both, &c. These sometimes accompany the noun, and some- 
times refer to it understood, or stand instead of it, after the man- 
ner of pronouns, and hence are sometimes called Pronominal ad- 
jectives, and sometimes Adjective pronouns. (See 289.) 

203. This classification of adjectives, however, is of but little practical 
use, as adjectives of all classes are used in the same way. 

NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 

204. Adjectives expressing number are called Nume- 
ral adjectives. They are of two kinds, Cardinal and 
Ordinal. 

205. The Cardinal numbers indicate how many; they 
are one, two, three, four, &c. 

208. The Ordinal numbers indicate which one of a 
number; they are first, second, third, &c. In compound 
numbers, the last only has the ordinal form; as, twenty- 
first; two hundred and fifty -third, &c. 

207. Numeral adjectives, being also names of numbers, are often 
used as nouns, and so have the inflection and construction of nouns ; 
thus, by twos, by tens, by fifties. For ten's sake, for twenty'' s sake. 
One and one are two. Two is an even number. Five is the half 
of ten. Three fives are fifteen. Fifteen is divisible by three. 
Twice two is four.* Four is equal to twice two. Three fourths. 

208. Adjectives in English are indeclinable. 



COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 
209« Common and participial adjectives for the most 
part have three forms, called degrees of comparison ; 
namely, Positive, Comparative, and Superlative. 

*In some arithmetics, the language employed in the operation of multiplying — such 
as " Twice two are four, twice three are six " — is incorrect. It should be, " Twice two is 
four,'* &c, ; for the word two is used as a singular noun — the name of a number. The 
adverb " twice " is not in construction with it, and consequently does not make it plural. 
The meaning is, " The number two taken twice is equal to four." For the same reason 
•we should say, "Three times two is six," because the meaning is, u Two taken three 
times is six." If we say, " Three times one are three," we make " times " the subject 
of the verb, whereas the subject of the verb really is " one," and ' ; times " is in the ob- 
jective of number (828). 2 : 4 : : 6 : 12, should be read, " As 2 is to 4, so is 6 to 12 ; " not; 
u As two are to four, so are, &c. But when numerals denoting more than one, are used 
as adjectives, with a substantive expressed or understood, they must have a plural con- 
struction. 



40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

210. The Positive expresses a quality, simply; as, 

"Gold is heavy" 

211. The Comparative expresses a quality in a higher 

degree in one object than in another, or in 
several taken together ; as, " Gold is heavier 
than silver." " He is wiser than his teachers." 

212. The Superlative expresses a quality in one object 

in the highest degree compared with several 
others; as, " Gold is the most precious of the 
metals." 

213. Remark. — The superlative degree, when made by prefixing the 
adverb most, is often used tq express a very high degree of a quality in an 
object, without directly comparing it with others ; as, " He is a ?nost dis- 
tinguished man." Thus used, it is called the superlative of eminence, and 
commonly has a or an before it, if the noun is singular ; and is without 
an article, if the noun is plural. The same thing is expressed by prefix- 
ing the adverb very, exceedingly, &c. ; as, "a very distinguished man;" 
u very distinguished men." The superlative of comparison commonly has 
the before it. 

RULES FOR COMPARISON. 

214 9 Rule 1. Adjectives of one syllable form the com- 
parative by adding er to the positive, and the superla- 
tive by adding est; as, sweet, sweeter, sweetest. 

Words ending in e mute, drop e before er and est; as, large, 
larger, largest. (68.) 

215. Rule 2. Adjectives of more than one syllable, are 
commonly compared by prefixing more and most to the 
positive; as, numerous, more numerous, most numerous. 

216. Remark. — Though these rules indicate the prevailing usage, 
yet adjectives of two syllables are not unfrequently compared by er 
and^Z; as, "Our tenderest cares;" "The commonest materials." 
and some adjectives of one syllable, as wise, apt, Jit, &c, from regard 
to euphony or taste, are sometimes compared by more and most. 
Dissyllables in le and y are generally compared by er and est ; as 
able, abler, ablest. All adjectives in y after a consonant, change y 
into i before er and est; as, dry, drier, driest ; happy, happier, hap- 
piest (57); but y after a vowel is not changed ; as, gay, gayer, gayest. 

%Yl* A lower degree of a quality in one object compared with 
another, and the lowest compared with several others, is expressed 



ETYMOLOG Y A DJECTIVBS. 



41 



by prefixing less and least to the positive ; as, sweet, less sweet, least 
sweet. This, by way of distinction, is sometimes called the compar- 
ison of diminution, or comparison descending. 

218. The meaning of the positive is sometimes diminished without em- 
ploying comparison, by annexing the syllable ish ; as, white, whitish; 
black, blackish. These may be called diminutive adjectives. So also 
various shades, degrees, or modifications of quality are frequently ex- 
pressed by connecting with the adjective such words as rather, somewhat, 
slightly, a little, too, very, greatly, &c, and, in the comparative and super- 
lative, by such words as much, far, altogether, by far, &c. 

219. Such adjectives as superior, inferior, exterior, interior, &c, though 
derived from Latin comparatives, and involving the idea of comparison, 
are not considered the comparative degree in English, any more than 
such words as preferable, previous, &c. They have neither the form nor 
the construction of the comparative (963-2). 

IRREGULAR COMPARISON. 

220. The following adjectives are compared irregu- 
larly, viz. : 

Positive. Comparative. 

Good better 

Bad, evil, or ill worse 
Little less, {sometimes lesser) 

Much or many more 

Late later, {irregular, latter) 

Near nearer 

Far farther 

Forth (obsolete) farther 
Fore former 

Old older or elder 

221. Much, is applied to things weighed or measured ; many, to 
things that are numbered; more and most, to both. Farther and 
farthest generally denote place or distance; as, "The farther they 
went, the more interesting was the scene ; " further and furthest 
refer to quantity or addition ; as, " I have nothing further to say." 
Older and oldest are applied to persons or things, and refer to age 
or duration ; as, u Homer is an older poet than Virgil ; " u The pyra- 
mids are older than the pantheon." Elder and eldest (from the 
obsolete eld) are applied only to persons of the same family, and 
denote priority of birth; as, "An elder brother." Later and latest 
have respect to time ; latter and last, to position or order. 

222. Some superlatives are formed by annexing most, sometimes 
to the comparative, and sometimes to the word from which the com- 



Superlative. 
best 
worst 
least 
most 

latest or last 
nearest or next 
farthest 
furthest 

" foremost or first 
oldest or eldest 



42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

parative is formed ; as, upper, uppermost or upmost from up; nether, 
nethermost; inner, innermost, or inmost, from in; hinder, hinder- 
most, or hindmost, from hind; outer, outermost, or utmost, from out 
ADJECTIVES NOT COMPARED. 

223, Adjectives whose signification does not admit of 
increase or diminution, can not properly be compared. 
These are — • 

1. Numerals; as, one, two; third, fourth, &c. 

2. Proper adjectives; as, English, American, Roman. 

3. Adjectives that denote figure, shape, or material; as, circular 

square, wooden, &c. 

4. Such adjectives as denote posture or position; as, perpendicu- 

lar, horizontal, 

5. Definitives; as, each, every, all, some, &c. 

6. Adjectives of an absolute or superlative signification; as, true 

perfect, universal, chief, extreme, infinite, complete. 
224. Remark.— Of these last, however, comparative and superlative 
forms are sometimes used either to give greater force to the expression 
or when the words are used in a sense not strictly absolute or superlative' 
The following are examples : — F 

ff <™™.— " Th e «**«* of evils. "-2Wi. " The extremest ver^e." 
— bhaks. "His e^mes* state. "— £pmcer. [So in Greek ia X ar6Taro^] 

Chief .-."Chiefest of the herdsmen."— Bible. "Chief est courtier."— 
bhaks. ' ' First and chief est. "—Milton. 



Perfect— "Raving more perfect knowledge of that way," i. e. knowl- 
edge nearer to perfection.— Bible. So, "The most perfect society."—^ 
Everett. "Less perfect imitations."— Macauley. v ' 

More complete, most complete, less complete, are common. 

225. Pausing. — In parsing an adjective fully : 1. State its class. 
2. Compare, if admitting comparison (209), and if not compared, so 
state it. 3. Tell its degree of comparison, if compared. 4. The 
noun which it qualifies. Do this always in the same order and in 
the fewest words possible. 

EXAMPLES. 

"A wise son maketh a glad father." — "Wisdom is more precious 

than rubies."—" The sluggard is wiser in his own conceit, than seven 

men that can render a reason."— "Blessed are the pure in heart." 

JVise is a common adjective, compared by er and est (214), positive, 
and qualifies son (196). J 

Glad is a common adjective compared by er and est positive and 
qualifies father. 



ETYMOLOGY ADJECTIVES. 43 

More precious is a common adjective, compared by more and most, com- 
parative, and qualifies wisdom (705, 4). 

Wiser is a common adjective, compared by er and est, comparative, 
and qualities sluggard (196) and (705, 4). 

Seven is a numeral adjective, cardinal, not compared, and qualifies men. 

Blessed is a participial adjective, compared by more and most, positive, 
and qualifies men understood. 

Pure is a common adjective, compared by er and est, positive, and 
qualifies men understood. 

226. Abbreviation. — This process may be abbreviated without 
loss, by omitting the class (202), as of no use in Syntax (584), and 
also omitting to mention the degree of comparison (209), except the 
comparative or superlative, taking it for granted, in adjectives com- 
pared, that it is in the positive, unless otherwise stated. Any men- 
tion of degree, in adjectives not compared, would be improper. In 
this way the preceding adjectives may be parsed, thus: — 

Wise is an adjective, compared by er and est, and qualifies son. 

More precious is an adjective, compared by more and most, compara- 
tive, and qualifies wisdom. 

Wiser is an adjective, compared by er and est, comparative, and qual- 
ifies sluggard. 

227. PRELIMINARY ORAL EXERCISE. 

What is an adjective ? The pupil having given the definition (195) in 
answer, for the purpose of illustrating it, a fist of nouns may again be 
formed on the blackboard as directed (181); and supposing the list to be 
man, horse, apple, house, tree, book, &c, the teacher may take them up, 
each in order, and proceed in some such way as the following : — 

Man. — What part of speech is man? Why? Are all men exactly 
alike ? If not, mention some things in which they differ. Ans. Some 
a-e tall; some are short ; some old; some young ; some learned; some 
unlearned; somewise; some foolish, &c. 

When you say " a tall man, a short man, an old man, a young man," 
what is the use of the words tall, short, old, &c. ? Ans. They are used 
to qualify the word " man," by telling what sort of a man is meant (196-1). 
What part of speech are words used to qualify nouns ? Then what part 
of speech axe -tall, short, old, young, &c. ? Prefix an adjective to each of 
the nouns in the list above, so as to make sense. Prefix as many adjec- 
tives to each noun separately, as you can think of, to make sense ; thus : 
Horse — a large horse, a small horse, a young horse, &c. What part of 
speech is large, small, young, &c. ? Why ? 

COMPARATIVE DEGREE. 

Are all men equally tall ? Ans. No ; some men are taller than others. 
When you say, " James is taller than John," in what form or degree is 
the adjective taller? What does the comparative degree express (211)? 
How is the comparative degree formed ? When is the comparative formed 



44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

by annexing er ? When, by prefixing more ? What is the comparative 
form of tall, short, old, young, &c. ? What is the comparative form of 
learned, unlearned, foolish, virtuous, &c. ? Put the adjectives prefixed to 
nouns in the list above, in the comparative form. —Form sentences, each 
of which shall contain a noun, and its adjective in the comparative degree. 

SUPERLATIVE DEGREE. 

When you compare James with several other persons, and find that he 
exceeds them all in tallness, how would you express it ? Ans. I would 
say, "James is the tallest." What form of the adjective is tallest? 
What does the superlative express ? In how many ways is it formed ? 
When, by annexing est to the positive? When, by prefixing most I 
What is the superlative of tall, short, old, young, rich, poor, &c. ? — of 
learned, unlearned, beautiful, virtuous, &c. ? Put the adjectives prefixed 
to the nouns, in the list above, in the superlative form. Form sentences, 
in each of which there shall be one of the above nouns, and its adjective 
in the superlative degree. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Compare — Bright, diligent, thin, noble, bad, pretty, fear- 
ful, brave, warm, active, worthy, cold, large, industrious, affable, 
wise, obedient, gloomy, able, sad, little, strong, near, dutiful, 
serene, big, good, careless, hot, late, fruitful, lovely, gentle, 
pleasant, sagacious, prudent. 

Add to each one of these adjectives a noun which it can properly 
qualify; as, "A bright day" " a diligent student" &c. 

2. In what form are the following adjectives^ — Mildest,- 
better, high, more, uttermost, happiest, worthless, least, whiter, 
lowermost, worse, cruel, eldest, gentle, magnificent, best, many, 
less, gayest, peaceful, virtuous, sweetest, evil, inmost, happier, 
miserable, temperate, useful, delicate, honorable, meek, proud, 
amiable, morose. 

Compare each of these adjectives. 

To each of these, add a noun which the adjective can properly qualify. 

3. In the following phrases, tell which words are nouns, and which are 
adjectives. Parse as directed (182, 194, 225). 

A good man ; a kind heart ; a clear sky ; the benevolent lady ; 
the highest hill ; a skillful artist ; an older companion ; man's 
chief concern ; a lady's lap-dog ; most splendid talents ; the live- 
liest disposition ; a pleasant temper ; the raging billows ; temples 
magnificent ; silent shades ; excellent corn ; a loftier tower ; a 
happier disposition ; the third day ; a round ball ; a square 
table ; one good book is better than many bad books. 

4. Take a paragraph in any book ; point out the articles, nouns, and 
adjectives. Parse them ; but, in nouns, omit the case. 



ETYMOLOGY — PRONOUNS. 45 



PRONOUNS. 

228. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun ; 
as " John is a good boy ; he is diligent in his studies." 

229. The noun instead of which a pronoun is used, is called its 
antecedent, because the pronoun refers to it as previously mentioned, 
or in some way understood (236). 

230. Pronouns of the third person are used in writing and speak- 
ing, to prevent the frequent and awkward repetition of the noun. 
Thus, without the pronoun, the above example would read, " John 
is a good boy ; John is diligent in John's studies." 

231. A pronoun is sometimes used instead of another pronoun; 
as, " Yon and /must attend to our duty." See 730. 

232c Pronouns may be divided into Personal, Rela- 
tive, Interrogative, and Adjective. 

I. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

233t Personal Pronouns are those which distinguish 
the person by their form. They are either Simple or 
Compound. 

SIMPLE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

234, The simple personal pronouns are I, thou, he, she, 
it; with their plurals, we, you, they. 

235. Of these, / is of the first person, and denotes the speaker ; 
thou is of the second, and denotes the person addressed; he, she, it, 
are of the third, and denote the person or thing spoTcen of (111). 

236, The pronouns / and thou denote the speaker, and the person 
addressed, without previous mention, or even knowledge of their 
names, the persons intended being sufficiently indicated by their 
presence, or some other circumstance. The pronouns of the third 
person refer to some person or thing previously mentioned, or easily 
understood from the context, or from the nature of the sentence. 

237. Re, she, it, and they, are frequently used as general terms in 
the beginning of a sentence, equivalent to "the person," &c., with- 
out reference to a noun going before ; as, u He [the person] that 
loveth pleasure shall be a poor man." " How far is it [the distance] 
to the city ? " 



46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

238. They is, also used in a vague sense for "people," in such 
expressions as " They say," [like the French on, or the German man[. 

239. The Accidents of personal pronouns, like nouns 
(110), are Person, Gender, Number, and Case. They 
are thus declined : — 





SINGULAR. 




PLURAL. 






Worn. Poss. 


Obj. 


JSFom. Foss. 


Olj. 


1. 


M. or F. I mine 


me 


We ours 


US 


2, 


M. or F. Thou (244) thine 


thee 


You (245) yours 


you 




C Masc. He his 


him 


They theirs 


them 


3. 


) Fern. She hers 


her 


They theirs 


them 




( Neut. It its 


it 


They theirs 


them 



OBSERVATIONS ON PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

240. In many Grammars, the possessive of all the pronouns, except he 
and t£, has two forms, as follows: My or mine; thy or thine; her or hers ; 
our or ours; your or yours ; their or theirs. According to this arrange- 
ment, the first form, my, thy, &c, is always used before a noun denoting 
the object possessed; the second fbrin, mine, thine, &C, never before 
that noun, but only referring to it as previously mentioned, or evident 
from the connection. The possessive case of nouns, is used in both ways. 
To this classification there is no important objection ; and such as prefer 
it may readily adopt it, though, for reasons assigned (289), a different 
classification is here preferred. Mine and thine are sometimes used as 
possessives for my and thy (293). 

241, Some, again, regard my, thy, &c, as the only form of the posses- 
sive case, and mine, thine, &c, not as a possessive case at all, but as a 
substitute for the possessive case of the pronoun and the noun referred 
to together, and that it is in the nominative or objective case, according 
as the noun referred to would be, in the full expression ; thus, " Your 
book is old, mmeis new," is equivalent to " Your book is old, my book is 
new." Hence it is inferred, that mine is not a possessive case, but a sub- 
stitute for my book, and the nominative to is. This, though plausible, is 
obviously incorrect. If, instead of the pronoun mine, we substitute a 
noun, that noun will have to be in the possessive case ; thus, " Your book 
is old, John's is new." The construction in these two sentences being 
identical, if u John's" be the possessive case, so also is u mine ; " and if 
in the possessive, it can not be the nominative to " is." ^ The mistake lies 
in considering mine a substitute for my book, whereas it really is a sub- 
stitute only for my, including such a reference to the word book in the 
first part of the sentence, as renders its repetition in the second part not 
only unnecessary, but, according to the usage of the language, improper. 
The difference between the construction of the noun and the pronoun, in 
such sentences, is simply this: the possessives mine, thine, &c, according 
to usage, are never used before a noun, but the possessive of the noun is 
used both before a noun and after it. When it is deemed proper to 
express the noun after the pronoun, the form mine, &c, must be changed 



ETYMOLOGY — PRONOUNS. 47 

for my &c. Thus, we can not say " Mine book," but " My book ; " but 
we can with equal propriety say, " John's book," or " The book is John's:' 
See Appendix II., page 247. 

242. In the same manner may be explained, the use of the possessive 
afte intransitive verbs in the active voice, and after prepositions ; thus, 
"James lost his books, and I gave him mine? meaning my books.— U A 
picture of the king's," is a picture of (i. e. from) the king's pictures. So 
"A book of mine," is a book of (from) my books. U A friend of yours," 
is a friend of (from) your friends. It is worthy of notice, that though 
this use of the possessive after of, originally and strictly implies selection, 
or a part only, it has insensibly come to be used when no such selection 
is, or ever can be, intended. Thus we may say, " That house of yours," 
44 that farm of yours," without intending to imply that any other houses 
or farms belong to you; and when we say, "That head of yours," selec- 
tion is obviously excluded by the sense. 

243. In royal proclamations, charters, editorial articles, and the 
like, where there is no individual responsibility, we is frequently 
applied to one person. 

244. Thou is now used only in the solemn style — in addresses to 
the Deity, or to some important object in nature, — or to mark 
special emphasis, — or in the language of contempt. Ye, the plural 
of thou, is seldom used (except as the subject of the imperative), 
and only in the solemn style. It is sometimes used as the objective 
for you; as, "Vain pomp and glory of this world, I hate ye! — 
Shales. 

245* You, the common plural of thou, is now used also to denote one 
person, but, even when it does so, it always takes a plural verb. This 
usage has become so fixed and uniform, that some eminent grammarians 
contend for its being regarded as singular. No advantage, however, 
would be gained by adopting this proposal, and it seems to accord much 
more with simplicity, as well as with fact, to regard it as a plural which 
has come to be used for the singular by the figure enallagi (1044,4). In 
certain kinds of writing (243), we is used in the same way, and so also is 
the corresponding pronoun in French, and some other modern languages, 
in which, however it is always regarded as a plural form. 

246. The pronoun it is used in a variety of ways : — 

1. Properly it is used instead of a neuter noun, word, or substan- 

tive phrase ; as, "Life is short ; it should be well improved.'' 
"Man is a noun ; it is irregular in the plural." " James is 
a good scholar, and he knows it? viz., that he is a good 
scholar. "And the burden that was upon it shall be cut 
off; for the Lord hath spoken it — Is. xxii. 25. 

2. It is used as an indefinite subject of the verb to oe, followed by 

a predicate in any person or number; as, "It is /;" "It is 
you;" "It is they? &c 



48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. It is used in the same manner after the verb to he, in interrog- 

ative sentences; as, u Who is it?" "What is Uf" &c. 

4. It is prefixed as an introductory subject to such verbs as to be, 

to happen, to become, and the like, referring to an infinitive 
mood, or substantive phrase, which follows the verb, and is 
its true subject ; as, "It is an honor for a man to cease from 
strife ; " i. e., To cease from strife is an honor for a man. u It 
has been proved, that the earth revolves on its axis; " i. e., It, 
namely, that the earth revolves on its axis, has been proved. 

5. It is used indefinitely before certain verbs, to denote some cause 

unknown, — or general, — or well known, whose action is 
expressed by the verb; as, "It rains;" "It snows;" "It 
thunders;" "It is cold;" "It is hot," &c. Verbs before 
which it is thus used, are said to be impersonal (520). 

6. It is sometimes used as a mere expletive ; as, " Come and trip 

it as you go." 

247. The possessives, hers, its, ours, yours, theirs, should never 
be written her's, it's, our's, your's, their" s. 

248. His and its, before a noun, are possessive pronouns ; without 
a noun following, they are the possessive case (292). Her, before a 
noun, is the possessive pronoun ; without a noun, it is the objective 
case. 

COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

249. Myself {ourself), thyself (yourself), himself, herself, itself, 
with their plurals, ourselves, yourselves, themselves, are called Com- 
pound personal pronouns. They are used in two cases— the nomi- 
native, and the objective. In the nominative they are emphatic, and 
are added to their respective personal pronouns, or are used instead 
of them; as, "I myself did it." "Himself shall come." In the 
objective they are reflexive, showing that the agent is also the object 
of his own act ; as, "Judas went and hanged himself" 

250. The simple pronouns, also, are sometimes used in a reflexive 
sense; as, " Thou hast hewed thee out a sepulchre, as he that hew- 
eth him out a sepulchre on high." — Bible. 

251. Ourself and yourself are used as compounds, corresponding 
to we and you, applied to an individual; as, "We ourself will fol- 
low."— Shales. " You must do it yourself" 

252. The possessive emphatic or reflexive, is made by adding the 
word own to the possessives my, thy, his, her, &c. (295); as, "God 
created man in his own image." 



ETYMOLOGY — PRONOUNS. 49 

PARSING. 

253. Personal pronouns are parsed nearly like the 
substantives for which they stand (182). Thus, ' ( I 
l ove » — 7i s a pronoun of the first person, masculine or 
feminine, in the nominative singular. 

As an additional exercise, a reason may be assigned for each statement, 
thus : — 

I is a pronoun, because it stands for a noun or name. 
personal, — its form determines its person. 
first person, — it represents the speaker. 
Masculine, or Feminine, — it denotes male or female. 
Nominative, — subject (595) of love. 
Singular, — it denotes but one. 

254, PRELIMINARY ORAL EXERCISE. 

What is a pronoun (228) ? What is a personal pronoun (233) ? In the 
sentence, " John is in the garden ; he says it is full of trees," for what 
noun, or name, does the word he stand ? Then what part of speech is 
he ? Why ? For what noun does the word it stand ? — then what part 
of speech is it ? Why ? What other words stand instead of nouns ? 
(Write a list of them on the blackboard.) 

Write sentences, each containing one of these pronouns, and tell for 
what noun it stands. 

Select the personal pronouns from sentences in any reading-lesson, or 
book, and say for what nouns they stand. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Parse the following list, as directed (253). — I, thou, we, 
me, us, thine, he, him, she, hers, they, thee, them, its, theirs, 
you, her, ours, yours, mine, his, it ; — myself, ourselves, your- 
self, himself, themselves. 

2. Select the personal pronouns in the following sentences, and parse 
them ; if of the first or second person, state what they designate ; if of 
the third, state the nouns for which they stand. 

James says he is older than I ; but I am taller than he. — 
That book is mine ; take it and read it. — Let them do it them- 
selves. — When you learn the lesson, come to me, and I will hear 
you say it. — They will go when we return. — Thou art the 
man . — Your knife is sharper than mine ; lend it to me, if you 
please, till I mend my pen. 

3. Write sentences, each of which shall contain a pronoun in the nom- 
inative case — in the possessive case — in the objective case. 

3 



50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

4. Change the following sentences, so that the pronoun it shall be 
omitted, and the subject or thing spoken of shall stand first (246-4). 

It is pleasant to see the sun. It is criminal to deceive. It 
is manifest that you have been deceived. It is said that the 
cholera has appeared in England. It is easy to talk. 

5. Write sentences of this kind both ways. 

II. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 
255* A Relative Pronoun is one that relates to, and 
connects its clause with, a noun or pronoun before it 
called the antecedent (229) ; as, " The master who 
taught us." 

256. The antecedent of a relative may be a noun — a pronoun— 
an infinitive mood — a clause of a sentence (636) — or any fact or 
thing implied in it; as, "Airing who is just, makes his people 
happy ; " " He that is wise, is wise for himself; " "He who reads 
all will not be able to think, without which it is impertinent to read ; 
nor to act, without which it is impertinent to think;" "We are 
bound to obey the Divine law, which we cannot do without Divine 
aid ; " "The man was said to be innocent, which he was not." 

257. Relative pronouns are of two kinds, Simple and 
Compound. 

258. The simple relative pronouns are who, which, 
that, and what. That and what are indeclinable, and 
used only in the nominative and objective. 

Who is masculine or feminine, and which is mascu- 
line, feminine, or neuter. They are declined thus : — 
Singular and Plural. Singular and Plural. 

Nbm. Who Which 

Poss. Whose Whose 

Olj. Whom Which 

259. Who is applied to persons only ; as, " The boy 
ivho reads." 

260. Which is applied to inferior animals, and things 
without life ; as, " The dog which barks " — " The book 
which was lost." 

261. This relative, as in Latin, sometimes, for the sake of greater per- 
spicuity, has its antecedent repeated after it ; as, "I gave him a knife 



ETYMOLOGY — PRONOUNS. 51 

with an ivory handle, which knife he still has." This construction, how- 
ever, is inelegant, and should be avoided. 

262. Which is applied also to collective nouns, expressing collec- 
tions of persons, when the reference is to the collection, and not to 
the persons composing it; as, "The committee which was ap- 
pointed." Also to names of persons considered only as a word ; as, 
u Nero, which is only another name for cruelty." 

263. Which has for its possessive whose ; as, " A religion whose 
origin is Divine." Instead of " whose" ho w ever, the objective with 
of before it is more common ; as, " A religion the origin of which 
is Divine." 

264. That is applied to both persons and things ; as, 
" The boy that reads ; " " the dog that barks ; M " the 
book that was lost" (748). 

265. What is applied to things only, and is never used 
but when the antecedent is omitted ; as, " This is ivhat 
I wanted : — 

266# In this example, properly speaking, what neither includes the an- 
tecedent, nor has it understood, in the ordinary sense of that expression. 
If it included the antecedent, then what would be of two cases at the same 
time, which, if not absurd, is an anomaly not to be readily admitted. If 
the antecedent were understood, it could be supplied, and then the sen- 
tence would stand, " This is the thing what I wanted." But this is not 
English. The truth is, what is a simple relative, having, wherever used, 
like all other relatives, but one case ; but yet it has this peculiarity of 
usage, that it always refers to a general antecedent omitted, but easily 
supplied by the mind, and to which belongs the other case in the con- 
struction. The antecedent referred to is always the word "thing" or 
" things" or some general or indefinite term, obvious from the sense. 
When that antecedent is expressed, the relative following must be which 
or that, but never what. Thus, u This is what I wanted," is equivalent to 
" This is that which, or the thing which, I wanted." Hence, though it is 
true that what is equivalent in meaning to that which, or the thing which, 
yet the error to which this has imperceptibly led, viz., that what is a com- 
pound relative, and includes the antecedent, should be carefully avoided. 
— See Appendix III. p. 247. 

267. The office of the relative is twofold : — 
1. It is sometimes merely additive or descriptive, and connects its 
clause with the antecedent, for the purpose of further describing, 
without modifying it ; thus used, it is a mere connective, nearly 
equivalent to and with a personal pronoun he, she, it, &c. ; as, 
4U Light is a body ichich moves with great celerity " = u Light is a 
body, and it moves with great celerity." 



52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. It is more commonly restrictive ', and connects its clause 
with the antecedent, in order to modify or restrict its mean- 
ing. Thus used, the relative with its clause is equivalent to an 
adjective; as, "Every thing which has life is an animal " = " Every 
living thing is an animal." When used in this way, the relative 
can not be resolved into and with a personal pronoun, for we can 
not say, " Every thing is an animal, and it has life." 

268, The relatives who and which are used in both senses. That 
is used in restrictive, more commonly than in descriptive clauses. 

26!). Which is sometimes used as a demonstrative adjective pro- 
noun (303), equivalent to this or these, and qualifies or limits the 
substantive following it (676) ; as, "Which things are an allegory" 
= " These things are an allegory." 

270. In English, a relative must always be in the same sentence with 
its antecedent, and, if restrictive, in close connection with it. In Latin, 
the relative often has its antecedent in a preceding sentence, and con- 
nected with it by a conjunctive term. When this is the case, it should 
be rendered into English by a demonstrative, or personal pronoun. This 
difference of idiom should be carefully marked by classical students. — 
See Lat. Gr., 295. 

271. In such sentences as the following — "Shun such as are vicious" 
— " Send such as you have " — some grammarians consider the word as a 
relative : in the first example, as the nominative to are ; and in the sec- 
ond, as the objective, governed by have. Others, more properly, regard 
it ? in all such sentences, as a conjunction, and the expressions as ellipti- 
cal— to be supplied thus : " Shun such as [those who] are vicious."— 
" Send such as [those which] you have."— See Appendix IV. 248. 

COMPOUND RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

272. The relatives who, which, and what, with ever or soever an- 
nexed, are called compound relatives. They are used instead of the 
simple relative and a general or indefinite antecedent ; as, " Whoso- 
ever committeth sin is the servant of sin ; " that is, "Any one or 
every one who committeth sin," &c. "Whatever is evil should be 
avoided ; " that is, "Every thing which is evil," &c. 

273. Like the relative what, the compound relatives are used only when 
the indefinite antecedent is omitted. Whenever that is expressed, the 
simple relative who, which, or that, should be used as in the preceding 
examples. 

271. It is therefore not correct to say, either that these relatives include 
the antecedents, and so have two cases, or that the antecedent is under- 
stood. The same reasoning that is applied to the relative what (266), is 
equally applicable to the compound relatives, only it must be remembered 
that the antecedent referred to in these, and to which one of the cases 
properly belongs, is always a general or indefinite term. 



ETYMOLOGY — PRONOUNS. 53 

275 In old writings, the antecedent word is sometimes expressed, 
either' before or after the compound relative, for the sake of greater em- 
phasis or precision ; as, " Blessed is he, whosoever shall not be offended 
in me."—Eng. Bible. " WJiosoever will, let him take the water of life." 
This usao-e, however, is now nearly obsolete, except with the word what- 
ever ; as° " Whatever you do, let it be done well. 

276. Whoso, formerly used in the sense of whoever, or whosoever, is 
now obsolete. 

277. What, whatever, whatsoever, whichever, and whichsoever, are often 
used before substantives, as a sort of indefinite adjective ; as, "Wliat 
money we had was taken away." " Whatever course you take, act up- 
rightly." When thus used, the noun is sometimes placed between what, 
which, or ivhose, and soever; as, "What course soever "— " Into whose 
house soever ye enter " (856). 

PARSING. 

278. The relative is parsed by stating its gender, num- 
ber, case, and antecedent [the gender and number being 
always the same as those of the antecedent (742)] ; 

thus : — 

"The boy who studies what is useful, will improve." 

Wlio is a relative pronoun, masculine, in the nominative singular, and 
refers to " boy," as its antecedent. 

What is a relative pronoun, neuter, in the nominative singular, and 
refers to " thing," or u that," as its antecedent, omitted : if sup- 
plied, what must be changed into which (266) ; thus, the thing 
which, or that which. 

The pupil may assign reasons for the statements made in parsing, as 
exemplified (253). 

EXERCISES ON THE RELATIVE. 

1. Write on the blackboard a list of nouns, arranged in a column on 
the left side, and write after each its proper relative ; thus, " The man — 
who;" "The bird— which." 

2. In the following sentences, point out the relative, and the antece- 
dent or word to which it relates. Also state whether it is additive or 
restrictive (267) : — 

A man who is generous will be honored. — God, by whose 
kindness we live, whom we worship, who created all things, is 
eternal. — That is the book which I lost. — He who steals my 
purse, steals trash. — This is the boy whom we met. — This is 
the man that did it. — These are the books that you bought. 
The person who does no good, does harm. — The woman who, 
was hurt, is well. — This is the cat, that killed the rat, that ate. 
the malt, that lay in the house that Jack built. 



54 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. In each of the following sentences, point out the compound relative 
— mention the antecedent omitted, to which it refers. Insert the ante- 
cedent in each sentence, and make the necessary change in the relative 

(273):— 

Whoever steals my purse, steals trash. — Whoever does no 
good, does harm. — Whatever purifies the heart, fortifies it. 
Whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye to them 
also. — Whoever sins, will suffer. — I love whoever loves me. 
— Now whatsoever God hath said to thee, do. 

4. In the following sentences, wherever it can be done, change the 
relative and antecedent for the compound relative : — 

Bring with you every thing which you see. — Any one who 
told such a story, has been misinformed. — Any thing that is 
worth doing at all, is worth doing well. — Any thing that gives 
pain to others, deserves not the name of pleasure. — Every one 
who loves pleasure, will be a poor man. 

III. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 
279# Who, ivhich, and what, when used in asking 
questions, are called Interrogative Pronouns; as, " Who is 
there ?"— " Which will you take ?"— " What did he say ?" 

280. Who and which are declined like the relatives (258). 

281. In questions, who is equivalent to ichat person ; which and 
what have a noun following, to which, like an adjective, they belong; 
or they refer to one understood, but easily supplied; thus, "Who 
[what person] is there ? " — " Which book will you take ? " — " What 
[thing] did he say ? " 

282. Who applies to persons only ; which and what, to persons or 
things. 

283. As applied to persons, who inquires for the name ; which, for the 
individual; what, for the character or occupation ; as, u Who wrote that 
book?"— " Mr. Webster."— u Which of them ? "— " Noah Webster."— 
" WJiat is he ? " — " A lexicographer." 

284. The same pronouns used responsively, in the beginning of a de- 
pendent clause (636), or in what is called the indirect question (i. e., in a 
way which, in an independent clause, would be a direct question), are 
properly neither interrogatives nor relatives, but a sort of indefinite pro- 
nouns (306). This will be best illustrated by an example : — 

Interrogative. — " WIio wrote that letter ? " 

Relative. — " I know the person who wrote that letter ; " that is, I am 
acquainted with him. 

Indefinite.-—" I know who wrote that letter ; " that is, I know by whom 
that letter was written. 



ETYMOLOGY — PRONOUNS. 55 

285, It is necessary to these words being regarded as indefinites — 1, 
That they begin a dependent clause ; 2. That they do not ask a question ; 
3. That an antecedent can not be supplied without changing the sense ; 
and 4. That the whole clause be either the subject of a verb, or the object 
of a verb or preposition. These remarks will apply to all the following 
examples: "I know who wrote that letter." — "Tell me who wrote that 
letter." — " Do you know who wrote that letter ? " — " Nobody knows who 
he is." — " Who he is, can not be known." — " Did he tell you who he is ? " 
— " We can not tell which is he." — " I know not what I shall do." — " It 
is uncertain to whom that book belongs." — "Teach me what is truth and 
uh a' is error." 

PARSING. 

286, Interrogative pronouns, in both the direct and 
the indirect questions, are parsed by stating their gen- 
der, number, and case ; thus : — 

"Who comes ? I know not who comes." 

Who is an interrogative pronoun, masculine or feminine in the nomina- 
tive singular. 

WJio is an indefinite pronoun (or an interrogative pronoun used respon- 
sively), masculine or feminine, in the nominative singular. 

Reasons may be assigned for each statement, as exemplified (253.) 

EXERCISES. 

1. Point out in which of the following sentences, who, which, and what, 
are relatives ; in which, interrogatives ; and in which, indefinites. 

Who steals my purse, steals trash. — To whom did you give 
that book ? — What I do, thou knowest not now. — Who you are, 
what you are, or to whom you belong, no one knows. — What 
shall I do ? — Who built that house ? — Do you know by whom 
that house was built ? — Is that the man who built that house ? 
Which book is yours ? — Do you know which book is yours ? 
I saw a book which was said to be yours. — I know which book 
is yours. — What in me is dark, illumine. — What is crooked, can 
not be made straight. — What is wanting, can not be numbered. 
What is wanted ? — I know what is wanted. 

2. Write sentences, each of which shall contain one of these pronouns 
in one or other of these different senses. 

IV. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 

287, Adjective Pronouns are words used, sometimes 
like adjectives, to qualify a noun, and sometimes like 
pronouns, to stand instead of nouns. 



56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

288. Adjective Pronouns are divided into four classes : 
Possessive, Distributive, Demonstrative, and Indefinite. 

289. Adjectives used as nouns, or with a noun understood, com- 
monly take the article the before them (201) ; as, the young ; the 
old ; the good, &c. Adjective pronouns do not 

290. Of the adjective pronouns, the Possessives (291) clearly have a dou- 
ble character. As an adjective, they qualify a noun, and as a pronoun, stand 
instead of a noun. The Distributives, Demonstratives, and Indefinites, as 
adjectives, qualify a noun expressed or understood, or they stand instead 
of a noun, and thus may be regarded sometimes as adjectives, and some- 
times as pronouns. Hence they are classed by some grammarians as ad- 
jectives, and called pronominal adjectives ; and by others as pronouns, 
and called adjective pronouns. The latter classification and name are 
here preferred, because they have been admitted into the grammars of 
almost all languages ; and because a change of established nomenclature 
is an evil of so serious a kind, that it should not be incurred unless for 
the most urgent reasons. Still, it is a matter of little moment in itself 
which of these classifications is adopted. The principal point for the 
learner is, to know what words are adjective pronouns [or pronominal 
adjectives], and their character and use ; and every teacher may adopt 
that classification and name which he prefers. For the convenience of 
such as prefer to consider them pronominal adjectives, they are classed 
as definitives (202-5). 

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 

291. The Possessive Pronouns are such as denote 
possession. They are my, thy, his, her, its, — our, your, 
their — own. 

292. The possessive pronouns are derived from the personal, and com- 
bine the office of the adjective and pronoun, for they always limit one 
noun denoting the object possessed, and stand instead of another de- 
noting the possessor. They agree with the possessive case of the per- 
sonal pronoun in meaning, but differ from it in construction. The 
possessive pronoun, like the adjective, is always followed by its noun ; 
as, " This is my book ; " the possessive case of the personal is never fol- 
lowed by a noun, but refers to one known or previously expressed ; as, 
" This book is mine" The possessive case of nouns is used both ways ; 
as, " This is Johns book ; " or, " This book is John's" 

293. Formerly mine and thine were used before a vowel, or the letter 
h, instead of my and thy ; as, " Blot out all mine iniquities ; " " Com- 
mune with thine heart. 1 ' This form is still in use. 

294. His, her, and its, when followed by a substantive, are possessive 
pronouns ; not followed by a substantive, his is the possessive case of he , 
her, the objective case of she ; and its, the possessive case of it. In the 
English Bible, his is neuter as well as masculine, and is used, where its 
would now be used. See Prov. xxiii. 31 ; Is. lx. 22. 



ETYMOLOGY — PRONOUNS. 



57 



»95. Own is not used as a possessive pronoun by itself, but is added to 
the other possessive pronouns, or to the possessive case of nouns to 
render the possession expressed by them emphatic ; as, My own book ; 
"' The bov's own book." The possessive pronoun, with own following it, 
may have its substantive understood ; as, " This book is my own. ' 

DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS. 

296. The Distributive pronouns represent objects as 
taken separately. They are each, every, either, neither. 

297. Each denotes two or more objects taken separately. 

298. Every denotes each of more than two objects taken individu- 
ally, and comprehends them all. 

299. Either means one of two, but not both. It is sometimes 
used for each ; as, " On either side of the river." 

300. Neither means not either. 

301. The distributives are always of the third person singular, 
even when they relate to the persons speaking, or to those spoken 
to ; as, " Each of us— each of you— each of them— has his faults." 

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 

302. The Demonstrative pronouns point out objects 
definitely. They are to, that, with their plurals, these, 
those (692-694). 

303. Yon and which, before a noun, seem more properly to belong to 
this class of words than to any other; as " Yon trembling coward;" 
" Yon tall cliff; " u Which things are an allegory ; "==** These things," &c. 

304. Former and latter, first and last, with the prefixed— though often 
used like that and this— referring to words contrasted, are properly ad- 
jectives (201). 

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 

305. The Indefinite pronouns designate objects indefi- 
nitely. They are, none, any, all, such, whole, some, 
both, one (used indefinitely), other, another. The three 
last are declined like nouns. 

306. To these may be added, no, much, many, few, several, and 
the like ; also, who, tchich, and what, used responsively (284). 

307. One, denoting a definite number, is a numeral adjective (205) ; as, 
u One man is sufficient." But one, referring indefinitely to an individual, 
is an indefinite pronoun. Thus used, with its noun following, it is inde- 



58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

clinable like the adjective, as, " One man's interest is not to be preferred 
to another's." Without its noun following, it is either singular or plural, 
and is declinable, like the substantive ; as, " One is as good as another; " 
" One's interest is as good as another's ; " " He took the old bird, and 
left the young ones; " " One might say." The same remark is applicable 
to the indefinites, other and another. 

The expressions the one — the other, denoting contrast (692), have the 
singular form only ; but they sometimes refer to antecedent words de- 
noting more than one, regarded, however, either distributively or as a 
class ; thus : " For that which befalleth the sons of men, befalleth beasts 
— as the one dieth, so dieth the other." — Eccl. hi. 19. See, also, Philip- 
pians, 1, 16. For these words the French have a plural form, les uns — 
les autres, literally, the ones — the others. 

308. None [no one] is used in both numbers ; and is never fol- 
lowed by a substantive ; as, " None is so rude ; " " Among none is 
there more sobriety." 

309. Another is a compound of the article an and other ; some- 
times written separately, an other. 

310. Borne is used with numerals, to signify about ; as, u Some 
fifty years ago." This should not be imitated. 

311. The expressions, each other, and one another, form what may be 
called reciprocal pronouns, and express a mutual relation between differ- 
ent persons. They have this peculiarity of construction, that the first 
word of each pair is in the nominative, in apposition with the plural sub- 
ject, which it distributes; and the second, in the objective, governed by 
the transitive verb or preposition ; as, " They loved each other," i. e.; 
They loved each the other; "They wrote to one another" i. e., one to 
another (673). Each other applies to two ; one another, to more than 
two. 

312. Some of these indefinites, and words of similar signification, are 
sometimes used adverbially with the comparative degree ; as, " Are you 
any better ? " "I am some better ; " " He is none the better — all the bet- 
ter," i. e. i " Are you better in any degree ? " &c. 



PARSING. 

313# Adjective Pronouns are parsed by stating the 
class to which they belong, and the word which they 
qualify, thus : — 

" Every day brings its own duties." 

Every is a distributive adjective pronoun, qualifying " day." 
Its is a possessive adjective pronoun, emphatic, qualifying " duties." 
Own is a dependent possessive adjective pronoun ; joined with its, to 
render the possession expressed emphatic (295). 



ETYMOLO G Y — PRONOUNS. 59 

EXERCISES ON ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 

1. Point out the adjective pronouns in the following phrases and sen- 
tences, and parse them : — 

Every man is, to some extent, the architect of his own for- 
tune. — Do good to all men — injury to none. — All things come 
alike to all. — Your own friend, and your father's friend, forsake 
not. — This one, or that one, will answer my purpose ; both are 
good. — Some men love their money more than their honor. — 
Every one of us has his weak points (301). 



PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES ON PRONOUNS. 

In the following phrases and sentences, point out the pronouns, and 
parse them — each as already directed ; — 

Train up a child in the way he should go, and when he is 
old, he will not depart from it. — Remember now thy Creator 
in the days of thy youth. — He is an object of pity, who can 
not respect himself. — Feeble are all those pleasures in which 
the heart has no share. — You may read the lesson yourself. — 
John and he lost themselves in the woods. — You and he may 
divide it between you. — You and she and I will divide it among 
ourselves, 



EXERCISES ON ALL THE PRECEDING PARTS OF SPEECH. 

In the following sentences, point out the nouns, articles, adjectives and 
pronouns, in the order in which they occur, and parse them: — 

My son, forget not my law ; but let thy heart keep my com- 
mandments : For length of days, and long life, and peace, shall 
they add to thee. — Let not mercy and truth forsake thee : bind 
them about thy neck, write them upon the table of thy heart. 
Honor the Lord with thy substance, and with the first-fruits of 
all thine increase : So shall thy barns be filled with plenty, and 
thy presses shall burst out with new wine. — Happy is the man 
thai findeth Wisdom. — Length of days is in her right hand, 
and in her left hand, riches and honor. — Her ways are ways of 
pleasantness, and all her paths are peace." — " The sluggard 
will not plow by reason of the cold ; therefore shall he beg in 
harvest, and have nothing." — " The hand of the diligent maketh 
rich." 



60 ENGLISH GRAMMA It. 

THE VERB. 
314. A Verb is a word used to express the act, being , 
or state of its subject (315) ; as, " John runs,'" " The 
boy sleeps ;" " We are ;" " He is loved." Hence— 

A word that expresses the act, being, or state of a person or 
thing, is a verb. Thus, we say, runs is a verb, because it expresses 
the act of John, &c. — See Appendix VI. p. 250. 

315. The subject of a verb is that person or thing, whose act beinq or 
state, the verb expresses. Thus, in the preceding example "runs "ex- 
presses the act of "John"— "sleeps," the state of " 6oy"— " are'" the 
being or existence of "^,"and "is loved," the state of "he "as the 
object acted upon (369). In like manner, in the sentences, "Let him 
come; " I saw a man cutting wood ; " " let," expresses the act of thou 
understood, denoting the person addressed— " come" the act of "him " 
and "cutting," the act of " man." ' 

316. Verbs are of two kinds, Transitive and Intrans- 
itive* 

317. A Transitive verb expresses an act done by one 
person or thing to another; as, "James strikes the 
-table ;" " The table is struck by James " (367). 

318. An Intransitive verb expresses the being or 
state of its subject, or an act not done to another ; as, 
" I am;" " He sleeps;" " You run." 

319. In this division Transitive (passing over) verbs include all those 
which express an act th^t passes over from the actor to an object- or the 
meaning of which has such a reference to an object, as to render the 
expression of it necessary to complete the sense; 'as, "Be loves us ■ " 

1 hear you; " James resembles his brother ; " " He has a book." ' 
Intransitive verbs include all those which are not transitive, whether 

they express action or not ; as, " I am : " " You walk; " " They run." 

320. These two classes of verbs may be thus distinguished :-l 

1. Transitive verbs in the active voice, require an object after them to 
complete the sense; as, "James strikes the tabic ; "-Intransitive verbs 
do not require an object after them, but the sense is complete without it ; 
as, He sits : " You ride ; " " The wind blows ; " " The wheel turns." 

2 As the object of a transitive active verb is in the objective case anv 
verb which makes sense with me, thee, him, her, it, them, after it, is tran- 
sitive. A verb that does not make sense with one of these words after 
it, is intransitive; thus, strikes is trans itive, because we can say, "James 

* The division of verbs into transitive and intransitive has been so generallv adot^d 
necessTy^^ * ** DeSt S ramm ™> ** <*J discussion of thel^tilloXn 



ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 61 

strikes rne ; M sleeps is intransitive, because we cannot say, " James sleeps 
w«j." Hence — 

When a verb in the active voice has an object, it is transitive : when 
it has not an object, it is intransitive. 

3. In the use of transitive verbs, three things are always implied — the 
actor, the act, and the object acted upon ; in the use of intransitive verbs 
there are only two — the subject, and the being, state, or act, ascribed to it. 

321 • Intransitive verbs are sometimes rendered transitive — 

1. When followed by a noun of the same, or similar signification, 

as an object; as, intransitive, "Irra;" transitive, "I run 
a race." 

2. By the addition of another word ; as, intransitive, " I laugh ;" 

transitive, "I laugh at" (375). 
322. The same verbs are sometimes used in a transitive, and 
sometimes in an intransitive sense. Thus, in the sentence, " Char- 
ity thinketh no evil," the verb is transitive. In the sentence, 
" Think on me," it is intransitive. 

323« So also verbs, really transitive, are used intransitively, when they 
have no object, and the sense intended, being merely to denote an exer- 
cise, is complete without it. Thus, when we say, " That boy reads and 
writes well " — " reads" and " writes'''' are really transitive verbs ; because, 
a person who reads and writes, must read and write something. Yet, as 
the sense is complete without the object, nothing more being intended 
than simply, " That boy is a good reader and writer," the verbs, as here 
used, are intransitive. 

324. PRELIMINARY ORAL EXERCISE. 

When we say, "John runs," what part of speech is John? — -Why? 
What is the use of runs in the sentence ? It tells what John does. Is 
what a person or thing does, the act of that person or thing ? What 
part of speech are words that express the act of a person or thing ? 
Verbs. Then what part of speech is runs f — Why ? Of what is it that 
verbs express the act, being, or state ? Of their subject. Whose act 
does runs express ? Then what is John to the verb runs I When you 
say, " John runs," does it mean that he does anything to another ? What 
sort of verbs express an act not done to another ? What kind of a verb, 
then, is runs ? If you say, " John cuts wood," which word tells what 
John does? Then what part of speech is cuts? Is it transitive or 
intransitive ? — Why ? 

EXERCISES. 

i. In the following sentences, tell which words are verbs, and why — 
which are transitive, and why — which are intransitive, and why ? 

The boy studies grammar. — The girls play. — Grass grows in 
the meadows. — The farmer ploughs his field, and sows his 



62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

grain. — Romulus built Rome. — The sun shines. — The winds 
blow. — The tree fell. — Bring your books, and prepare your 
lessons. — Have you recited ? — Who read last ? — God created 
the heavens and the earth. — Columbus discovered America. 

2. Write a list of nouns, or names of persons or of things, in a col- 
umn on the left side of the blackboard ; write after each, a word which 
tells something that each of these does; tell what part of speech that 
word is, and why : if a verb, whether transitive or intransitive, and why. 

DIVISION OF VERBS. 

325. Iii respect of form, verbs are divided into Reg- 
ular \, Irregular, and Defective. 

326. A regular verb is one that forms its past tense 
(415) in the indicative active, and its past participle 
(454), by adding ed to the present; as, present, act; 
past, acted; past participle, acted, 

Note. — Verbs ending in e mute, drop e before ed ; as, love, loved, loved 
(68). See 494. 

327. An irregular verb is one that does not form its 
past tense in the indicative active, and its past partici- 
ple, by adding ed to the present ; as, present, write ; 
past, wrote ; past participle, written. 

328. A defective verb is one in which some of the 
parts are wanting. To this class belong chiefly, Auxil- 
iary and Impersonal verbs. 

AUXILIARY VERBS. 

329. Auxiliary (or helping) verbs are those by the 
help of which other verbs are inflected. They are, do, 
have, be; — shall, will; — may, can, must; — and, except 
be, they are used only in the present and the past 
tense ; thus :— 

Present. Do, have, shall, will, may, can, must. 

Past. Did, had, should, would, might, could, . 

330« Be, do, and have, are also principal verbs, and, as such, belong to 
irregular verbs (512). Be is used as an auxiliary in all its parts (354). 

For the inflection of auxiliaries with the principal verb, see 494, 507, 
and 516. 



ETYMOLOGY — AUXILIARIES. Go 

THE USE OF AUXILIARIES. 

331. Verbs, now used as auxiliaries only, were probably at first used 
as independent verbs, and combined syntactically with the following verb 
in the infinitive — the sign to being in process of time omitted, as it now 
is after such verbs as see, hear, feel, &c. (877); thus, "I can [to] do" — 
"They will [to] write" — "We could [to] go," &c. ; and some gramma- 
rians contend that they should be so considered still (381). 

332, Shall, will, may, can, and their past tenses, should, would, &c, as 
auxiliaries, retain the personal endings of the second person singular ; 
thus, shalt, wilt, mayst, ca?ist — shouldst, woiddst, mightst, couldst. But in 
their present they do not retain the personal ending of the third person 
singular ; thus, we say, he shall, will, may, can — not he shalls, wills, mays, 
cans. This will be seen by their use in the inflection of verbs. 

333. Do is used as an auxiliary in the present tense, and did in the 
past, to render the expression emphatic ; as, "I do love" — "I did love." 
Also when the verb in these tenses is used interrogatively, or negatively ; 
as, "Does he study?"— "He does not study." — " Did he go?"— "He 
did not go " — Do is used as an auxiliary in the second person singular of 
the imperative ; as, " Do thou love." 

334, Have is used as an auxiliary in the present-perfect tense, and had 
in the past-perfect. 

Shall and Will — Should and Would. 

335, Shall, primarily and strictly, denotes present obligation ; and 
will, present inclination, purpose, or volition, from which the futurity of 
the act, &c, is naturally inferred. But, as auxiliaries, the primary signi- 
fication is lost sight of, and they are used simply to denote futurity — still 
modified, however, in their use, by their primary signification. They are 
usually distinguished as follows : — 

Shall and Will, expressing resolution, purpose, &c. 

336. Will denotes the purpose, resolution, or inclination, of a person, 
in reference to his own acts; and shall, his purpose, &c, in reference to 
the acts of others over whom he has authority or power. As the 
purpose expressed may be that of the speaker, of the person addressed, 
or of the person spoken of, hence will arise the three following forms, 
viz. : — 

First Form.— Expressing the resolution of the speaker. It is my pur- 
pose or intention that — I will write — you shall write — he shall 
write. Or, without a preceding clause : I will write — you shall 
write — he shall write. 

Second Form. — Expressing the resolution of the person addressed. It 
is your purpose, &c, that — I shall write — you will write — he 
shall write. 

Third Form. — Expressing the resolution of the person spoken of. It 
is his purpose, &c, that — I shall write — you shall write — he 
(himself) will write — he (another) shall write. 

The second and third forms can not be used without a preceding clause. 



64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

337. Hence it is manifest that will expresses the purpose, resolution, 
promise, &c., of the subject of the verb. Thus : 

I will go ) ( My resolution, &c. 

Thou wilt go, > expresses -j Thy resolution, &c. 

He will go, ) ( Mis resolution, &c. 

338. Fixed purpose or determination, however, is expressed in a more 
positive and absolute manner in the first person by shall than by will, 
because in this way, the person, as it were, divests himself of will, and 
puts himself entirely at the disposal of another. Thus, a person may 
say, u I shall go, though much against my inclination." 

For this reason, shall is more polite and respectful in a promise, and 
more offensive in a threat, than will. 

Interrogatively. 

339. In asking questions, these auxiliaries in this sense, are used with 
reference to the will of the second person, to whom a question is always 
supposed xo be addressed, and hence are used as in the second of the above 
forms ; thus — 

Shall I write ? Will you write ? Shall he write ? — Equivalent to — 
Is it your purpose that I shall write ? — you will write ? — he shall write ? 
Shall and Will expressing futurity. 

340. In regard to simple futurity, the use of shall and will is directly 
the reverse of what it is in the expression of resolution : that is, will 
takes the place of shall, and shall takes the place of will. In other 
words, when a person in reference to himself foretells what is future, 
shall is used ; and in reference to others, will is used. Thus — 

First Form. — I think that I shall go — that thou wilt go — that he will 

go. Or, without a preceding clause : I shall go — thou wilt go 

— he will go. 
Second Form. — You think that I will go — that you shall go — that he 

will go. 
Third Form. — He thinks that I will go — that you will go — that he 

(himself) shall go — that he (another) will go. 

341. But when the thing foretold is regarded, either as pleasing, or 
repugnant, shall is used with reference to the first person, even when 
others are represented as foretelling ; as — 

You seem to think ) ,-, . % j I shall recover. 

He seems to fear J (I shall not recover. 

Interrogatively respecting the future. 

342% Shall is used interrogatively in the first and the second person, 
and will in the third; as, " Shall I arrive in time?" — " Shall you be at 
home to-morrow ? " — " Will your brother be there ? " 

343. Shall is used, instead of will, after the conjunctions if, provided, 
though, unless, &c. — the adverbs when, while, until, after, before, &c. — 
and also after whosoever, or a relative pronoun in a restrictive clause 
(26Y-2) ; as, "If they shall enter into my rest" — "When he shall ap- 



ETYMOLOGY — AUXILIARIES. 



65 



pear "__« There is nothing covered which shall not be revealed "—-" Who- 
ever shall put away his wife." 

344 Should the past tense of shall, and would, the past tense of will, 
are auxiliaries of the past potential; and, in dependent clauses, are used 
io the same manner after a past tense, that shall and will are used after 
the present or future. Hence, in the preceding examples (336 to .838), 
if the verb in the preceding clause is put m past time, should will take 
the place of shall, and would,the place of will, in the dependent clause; 
thus — 

First Form.— It was my purpose that I would write— you should write 

— he should write. 
So also in the other forms : and when there is no dependence on a 
preceding clause, these words will be used as in the first form. 

May, can, must— might, could— to he. 

345 Mav denotes present liberty or permission ; can, present ability ; 
and must, present obligation or necessity. They are used as auxiliaries 
in the present potential, to express these ideas. 

346. May sometimes denotes mere possibility ; as, " He may write, 
perhaps"— "It may rain to-morrow." 

34T. May, before the subject of the verb, is used to express a wish or 
prayer ; as, " May you be happy ! " 

348. Can, in poetry, is sometimes used by euphony for canst ; as, 
" Thou trees and stones can teach." — Davies. 

349. Might and could express, in past time, the same ideas generally 
that are expressed by may and can in the present. They are used as 
auxiliaries in the past potential. 

350. Might, before the subject, is also used to express a wish ; as, 
" Might it but turn out to be no worse than this ! " 

351. Sometimes, in the English Bible, might is used for may ; as, 
" These things I say, that ye might be saved."— John v. 34. 

352. Combined with have, these form a new series of compound auxil- 
iaries ; thus, shall have and will have are auxiliaries of the future-perfect 
indicative ; may have, can have, and must have, of the present-perfect 
potential; and might have, &c, of the past-perfect potential. 

353. But though may denotes present liberty, may have does, not de- 
note past liberty, but only the present possibility ; thus, u He may have 
written " means, It is possible that he has written. So also, must have 
does not denote past necessity, but present certainty; thus, "He must 
have written," means, There is no doubt he has written ; it can not be 
otherwise. 

354. The verb u to be," in all its moods and tenses, is used as an auxil- 
iary in forming the passive voice; as, " I am loved ; " " He was loved," 
&c. (507). Also, in the progressive form of the active voice ; as, I am 
writing ; " " He was writing," &c. (506). 

355. All these auxiliaries are sometimes used without their verb, to 
express by ellipsis, the same thing as the full form of the verb, together 



66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

with its adjuncts, when that is used immediately before, either in the 
same or in a different tense ; thus, " He writes poetry as well as I do; " 
" I can write as well as he can; " "If you can not write, I will;'" " He 
will do that as well as I can; " " James can get his lesson as well as ever 
I could; " " He envies me as much as I do him." 

356. The verb do (not auxiliary) is sometimes used as the substitute of 
another verb or phrase previously used ; as, " We have not yet found 
them all, nor ever shall do."— Milton.— " Lucretius wrote on the nature 
of things in Latin, as Empedocles had already done in Greek."— Acton. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Correct the errors in the following sentences, and give a reason for' 
the correction : — 

I will be a loser by that bargain. — I will be drowned and 

nobody shall help me. — I will be punished if I do wrong. — You 

shall be punished if you do not reform. — It shall probably rain 

to-morrow. — If you shall come I shall come also. — I will be 

compelled to go home. — I am resolved that I shall do my duty. 

—I purposed that if you would come home, I should pay you a 

visit. — I hope that I will see him. — I hoped that I would see 

him. — You promised that you should write me soon.— He shall 

come of his own accord, if encouragement will be given. 

2. In the following, tell which expressions are right, and which are 
wrong, and why : — 

It is thought he shall come. — It will be impossible to get 
ready in time. — Ye will not come to me. — Ye shall have your 
reward. — They should not do as as they ought. — We are re- 
solved that we will do our duty. — They are resolved that they 
shall do their duty. — I am determined that you will do your 
duty. — I am sure you will do your duty. 

ANOMALOUS USAGE. 

357. Several of these auxiliaries are sometimes used in a way 
which it is difficult, perhaps impossible, to explain in a satisfactory 
manner, and which may justly be regarded as anomalous. The fol- 
lowing are a few of these — 

358. Had is sometimes used in poetry for would ; as, " I had rather," 

" I had as lief," for, " I would rather," " I woidd as lief." 
Sometimes it is used for woidd have ; as, "My fortune had 
[would have] been his." — Dryden. Sometimes for might ; 
as, " Some men had [might] as well be schoolboys, as 
schoolmasters." 

359. Will is sometimes used to express what is customary at the pres- 

ent time; as, "He will sometimes sit whole hours in the 
shade ; " "He will read from morning till night." 



ETYMOLOGY VERBS — VOICES. 



67 



qfiO Would in like manner, is sometimes used to express what was 

360. ^°^^ u 1 stomary in pas ^ time . as , u The old man W0U l d shake his 

years away ; " " He'd sit him down." 

361. Would is sometimes used as a principal verb equivalent to the 

present of wish or desire ; as, « When I make a feast, I 
would my guests should praise it-not the cooks. - When 
I would [when I wish to] do good, evil is present with me. 
Thus used, the subject in the first person a sometimes 
omitted ; as, " Would God it were even,"=" I pray God ; 
" Would to God,"= u I pray to God.' 7 

362. Would, with a negative, used in this way, is not merely negative 

of a wish or desire, but implies strong opposition or refu- 
sal* as, " How often would I have gathered thy children— 
but ye would not ; " " Ye would none of my reproof. 

363. Should is used in all persons to denote present duty and should 

have to denote past duty; as, " You should write; l 
should have written;" "The rich should remember the 
poor." 

It often denotes merely a supposed future event ; as, "If 
he should promise, he will perform." 

It is sometimes used in an indefinite sense after that ; as, 
" It is surprising that you should say so." 

364. Should and would are sometimes used to express an assertion in a 

softened manner ; thus, instead of saying, " I think him 
insane " — " It seems to be improper," it is milder to say, 
" I should think him insane "— " It would seem to be im- 
proper." 

INFLECTION OF VERBS. 

365. The Accidents of verbs . are Voices, Moods, 

Tenses, Numbers, and Persons (473*). 

OF VOICE. 

368, Voice is a particular form of the verb, which 
shows the relation of the subject or thing spoken of, to 
the action expressed by the verb (494, 507). 

367. Transitive verbs have two voices, called the Ac- 
tive and the Passive. 

368. The Active voice (494) represents the subject 
of the verb as acting ; as, " James strikes the table." 

369. The Passive voice (507) represents the subject 
of the verb as acted upon; as, " The table is struck by 
James." 



68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

In other words, the verb, in the active voice, expresses the act of 
its subject; — in the passive, it expresses the state of its subject, as 
affected by the act. In the active voice, the subject of the verb 
acts — in the passive, it is acted upon. 

370. It is manifest from these examples, that whether we use the active 
or the passive voice, the meaning is the same, except in certain verbs in 
the present tense (509). There is the same act, the same actor, and the 
same object acted upon. The difference is only in the form of expression. 
By the active voice, we represent the subject as acting ; by the passive, 
as acted upon — With the active voice, the actor in the nominative case is 
the subject of the verb (760) ; with the passive, the actor is in the objective 
case after a preposition (818). — In using the active voice, the object acted 
upon is in the objective case, governed by the verb (801); in using the 
passive, the object is in the nominative case, as the subject of the verb. 

3T1. It is manifest, also, that when we know the act done, the person 
or thing doing it, and that to which it is done, we can always, by means 
of the two voices, express the fact in two different ways; thus, "God 
created the world ; " or, " The world was created by God." Also — 

372» When the active voice is used, we may sometimes omit the object ; 
thus, we can say, "John reads," without saying what he reads (323) ; and 
when the passive is used, we may omit the agent or actor; thus, we can 
say, " The letter is written," without stating by whom. 

373. Hence, the following advantages arise from these two forms 
of expression : — 

1. We can, by the form alone, direct attention, chiefly, either to the 
actor, or to that which is acted upon — to the former, by using the active 
voice — " Gon created the world" — to the latter, by using the passive — 
" The world was created by God." 

2. By means of the passive voice, we are able to state a fact, when we 
either do not know, or, for some reason, may not wish to state, by whom 
the act was done. Thus we can say, " The glass is broken," though we do 
not know who broke it ; or if we know, do not wish to tell. 

3. By this means, also, we have a variety, and of course, a choice of 
expression, and may, at pleasure, use that which to us appears the most 
perspicuous, convenient, or elegant. 

374. Intransitive verbs can have no distinction of voice, because 
they have no object which can be used as the subject in the passive. 
Their form is generally active ; as, U I stand; 1 '' "I run. 11 A few 
are used also in the passive form, but with the same sense as m the 
active; as, " He is come ; " " They are gone ; " equivalent to, u He 
has come," " They have gone." 

375. Intransitive verbs are sometimes rendered transitive, and so 
capable of a passive form — 

1. By the addition of another word: thus, "I laugh, 11 is intran- 
sitive; "I laugh at (him)" is transitive; passive, u He is laughed 
at (by me)." 



ETYMOLOG Y — V ERBS — MOODS. 69 

In parsing such examples, it is generally better in the active voice, to 
parse the words separately— laugh, as an intransitive verb, and at as a 
preposition, followed by its object ; but, in the passive voice^they must 
be parsed together as one word— a transitive verb, in the passive voice. 

2. Intransitive verbs are transitive, when followed by a noun of 
similar signification as the object ; as, intransitive, " I run; " tran- 
sitive, active, " I run a race ; " passive, " A race is run by me." 

3. Intransitive verbs become transitive, when used in a causative 
sense ; that is, when they denote the causing of that act or state 
which the verb properly expresses ; as, " Walk your horse round 
the yard."—" The proprietors run a stage-coach daily." Passively, 
11 Your horse was walked [made to walk] round the yard "—"A stage- 
coach is run [made to run] daily by the proprietors." Intransitive 
verbs, used in this way, are called Causatives. 

4. Many verbs in the active voice, by an idiom peculiar to the English, 
are used in a sense nearly allied to the passive, but for which the passive 
will not always be a proper substitute. Thus, we say, "This field 
ploughs well"—" These lines read smoothly"— " This fruit tastes bitter" 
_-" Linen wears better than cotton." The idea here expressed is quite 
different from that expressed by the passive form: "This field is well 
ploughed"—" These lines are smoothly read" Sometimes, however, the 
same idea is expressed by both forms ; thus, " Wheat sells readily," or, 
"is sold readily at an advanced price." (Expressions of this kind are 
usually made in French by the reflected verb ; thus, " Ce champ se 
laboure bien,"— " Ces lignes se lisent aisement.") When used in this 
sense, they may properly be ranked with intransitive verbs, as they are 
never followed by an objective case. 



MOODS. 

376. Mood is the mode or manner of expressing the 
signification of the verb. 

377. In English Grammar, the moods are five; namely, 
the Indicative, Potential, Subjunctive, Imperative, and 
Infinitive. 

378. The Indicative mood declares the fact expressed 
by the verb, simply and ivithout limitation; as, " He is," 
— " He loves,"—" He is loved" (494, 507). 

379. In other words, the indicative mood attributes to its subject 
the act, leing, or state, expressed by the verb, simply and without 
limitation. 



70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

380. The Potential mood declares, not the fact ex- 
pressed by the verb, but only its possibility, or the liberty, 
power', will, or obligation, of the subject with respect to 
it ; as, " The wind may blow " — " We may walk " — " I 
can swim "— " He would not stay "— " Children should 
obey their parents." 

In other words, the potential mood expresses, not what the sub- 
ject does, or is, &c, but what it map, can, must, might, could, would, 
or should do or be, &c. 

^ 381. The auxiliaries may, can, &c, in the potential mood, in all proba- 
bility, were at first independent verbs in the indicative, followed by 
the verb in the infinitive, without the sign to before it, as it is now used 
after such verbs as see, hear, feel, let, &c. (811). Grammarians now gen- 
erally combine them as one word, constituting a particular form of the 
verb, to which (from its leading use) they have given the name of poten- 
tial mood. The indicative and potential both declare, but they declare 
different things; the former declares what the subject does, or is; the 
latter what it may or can, &c, do or be. The declaration made by the 
indicative is simple ; that made by the potential is always complex, con- 
taining the idea of liberty, power, &c, in connection with the act. " He 
writes," is the indicative of the verb to write. "He can write," is the 
indicative of the verb can, with the infinitive to write ; or, combined, the 
potential of the verb to write." 

382. Both the indicative and the potential mood are used interroga- 
tively ; as, "Does he love?" — "Can he write?" They are also used 
without dependence on another verb, and express a complete idea in 
themselves. "James writes a letter," and "James can write a letter," 
are equally complete and independent sentences. 

383, The Subjunctive mood represents the fact ex- 
pressed by the verb, not as actual, but as conditional, 
desirable, or contingent ; as, " If he study, he will im- 
prove." — " that thou wert as my brother ! " 

384. This mood, as its name implies, is always subjoined to, and de- 
pendent on, another verb expressed or understood. "If he study, he 
will improve." — "0 [I wish] that thou wert," &c. 

385. The subjunctive mood differs in form from the indicative in the 
present tense only ; in the verb to be, in the present and past. 

386* Both the indicative and the potential, with a conjunctive particle 
prefixed, are used subjunctively ; that is, they are used to express what 
is conditional, or contingent, and with dependence on another verb ; as, 
"If he sleeps, he will do well" — " He would go if he could" (go). 

387. In parsing, that only should be called the subjunctive mood, 
which has the subjunctive form. When the indicative or potential is used 
subjunctively, it should be so stated. 



ETYMOLOGY VERBS — MOODS. 71 

388. The conditionalitv or contingency, &c, expressed by this mood, 
is usually intimated by such conjunctions as if, though, lest, unless, so, 
fcc., prefixed, which, however, make no part of the verb. ^ 

389 The same thing is sometimes expressed without the conjunction, 
bv merely putting the verb or auxiliary before the subject or nomina- 
tive • as "Had I," for "If I had"— "Were he," for "If he were — 
"Had begone," for " If he had gone "— " Would he but reform,", for " If 
he would but reform," &c. 

390, Some grammarians consider the subjunctive present only as an 
abbreviated form of the future indicative, or the past potential, and that 
the supplement may always be made ; thus, "If he study " &c, that is, 
"if he shall (or should) study," &c— " Though he [should] come, &c. 
This view is plausible, and may apply to the present tense of the sub- 
junctive in most cases; but it will not apply to the past subjunctive of 
the verb to be, either as a principal or an auxiliary. For though we 
mi»ht say, "If I should be," for "If I be," yet we can not say, "If I 
should were ; " and there are some cases in which the present subjunctive 
form seems to be indispensable ; as, " See thou do it not "— " If he do but 
try, he will succeed." Still — 

391 % The subjunctive mood, in its distinctive form, is now falling 
greatly into disuse. The tendency appears to be to lay it aside, and to 
use the indicative or potential in its stead, wherever it can be done. 
According to rule, the subjunctive form is used only when it has a future 
reference ; as, " If he come [viz., at a future time], he will be welcome." 
The same idea is expressed by saying, "If he comes" (406), "If he shall 
co?7ze »_or, "If he should come "—and one or other of these expressions 
is now generally preferred to the subjunctive. Formerly, in cases of 
supposition, the 'present subjunctive was used, whether it had a future 
reference or not; as, " Though God be high, yet hath he respect to the 
lowly." In all such expressions, according to present usage, the present 
indicative would be used ; thus, "Though God is high," &c. 

392. The Imperative mood commands, exhorts, en- 
treats, or permits ; as, " Do this "— " Remember thy 
Creator"— 4 ' Hear, my people "— " Go thy way " (598). 

393. The Infinitive mood expresses the meaning of 
the verb in a general manner, without any distinction 
of person or number ; as, to love. 

394. The infinitive is often used as a verbal noun (866, 867) in the 
nominative case, as the subject of a verb ; as, " To play is pleasant." 
Or, in the objective, as the object of a transitive verb in the active 
voice, or of a preposition ; as, " Boys love to play *— " He is about 
to g » — " What went ye out for to see ? " 

395. The infinitive mood generally has no subject ; yet the act, being, 
or state, expressed by it, is referable to some word connected with it. 
Thus, in the above examples, to play is referable to boys; to go is the act of 
he, &c. — See Appendix VI. p. 250. 



72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

396. But when the infinitive as a subject has its own subject* it is in 
the objective case, introduced by for; as, " For us to lie, is base." But 
when the infinitive with its subject is the object of a transitive verb, that 
subject in the objective case needs no connecting word ; as, " We believe 
him to be sincere." Here, him is the subject of to be, and the whole 
clause " him to be sincere "=" that he is sincere " is the object of u be- 
lieve" (872). 

397* The infinitive active, by an anomaly not uncommon in other lan- 
guages, is sometimes used in a passive sense; as, "You are to blame" 
(to be blamed) — "A house to let" — "A road to make" — " Goods made 
to sell " — " Knives to grind" &c. 



TENSES. 



398, Tenses are certain forms of the verb, which 
serve to point out the distinctions of time. 

399. Time is naturally divided into the past, the present, and the future- 
The past includes all that goes before the present ; the future includes 
all that comes after the present ; and the present, strictly speaking, is the 
point in which the past and future meet, and which has, itself, no space 
or continuance. In grammar, however, the present is not regarded in 
this strict sense, but as extending to a greater or less period of which 
the passing instant forms a part ; as, this moment, hour, day, zoeek, &c. 
In each of these, an act, &c, may be expressed, either simply and indefi- 
nitely as present, or definitely as completed ; and these are expressed by 
different forms of the verb called tenses. Hence — 

400. The tenses in English are six — the Present, the 
Present-perfect, the Past, the Past-perfect, the Future, 
and the Future-perfect* 

401. Of these, the present and the past, in the indicative mood, and 
the present in the subjunctive, are simple tenses, consisting of the verb 
only ; as, " I love"— u I loved." All the rest are compound, consisting of 
the auxiliary and the verb ; as, " I have loved" 

TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE MOOD. 

402» The Present tense expresses what is going on at 
the present time ; as, " I love " — " I am loved" 

* The past tense in English does not correspond to the imperfect in Latin or Greek, 
but rather to the Greek Aorist. There is, therefore, no propriety in retaining the name 
imperfect. The Latin imperfect corresponds precisely to the past-progress eve in English 
(506). So also, the present-perfect does not correspond precisely to the Latin perfect, as 
that is used in an indefinite sense, like the Greek Aorist. and also in a definite sense, like 
the English present-perfect. The past-perfect corresponds to the pluperfect in Latin. 
The future and the future-perfect in English correspond to the tenses of the same name 
in Latin. — See Latin Grammar, § 44. 



ETYMOLOGY VERBS — TENSES- 73 

403. This tense is used also to express what is habitual, or always true; 
as, kk He goes to church" — " Virtue is its own reward" — " Vice produces 
misery." 

404. It is used, in animated narration, to express past events with force 
and interest, as if they were present ; as, " Caesar leaves Gaul, crosses the 
Rubicon, and enters Italy " (1046,5). 

'405. It is used sometimes, instead of the present-perfect tense, in speak- 
ing of authors long since dead, when reference is made to their works 
which still exist, as lm Moses tells us who were the descendants of Abra- 
ham" — u Virgil imitates Homer ;" instead of "has told" "has imitated." 

406. It is used in dependent clauses after such words as when, before, 
if as soon as, after, till, and also after relative pronouns, to express the 
relative time of a future action, that is of an action future at the time of 
speaking, but which will be present at the time referred to ; as, " When 
he comes, he will be welcome " — " We shall get our letters as soon as the 
post arrives" — " He will kill every one [whom] he meets" &c. 
" No longer mourn for me when I am dead." — Shaks. 

407. The Present-perfect tense represents an action 
or event as completed at the present time, or in a period 
of which the present forms a part ; as, "I have sold my 
horse " — " I have walked six miles to-day" — " John has 
been busy this week" — "Many good books have been 
published this century." See 912. 

408. The sign of the present-perfect is have — inflected, have, hast, has, 
or hath. 

409. In the use of this tense, it matters not how long ago the act re- 
ferred to may have been performed, if it was in a period reaching to and 
embracing the present, or a part of which is not yet past ; as, " Many 
discoveries in the arts have been made since the days of Bacon " that is, 
in the period reaching from that time to the present. On the other hand, 
if the time of an act mentioned is past, and does not include the present, 
this tense can not be used, however near the time may be. Thus, Ave can 
not properly say, "I have seen your friend a moment ago ; " but, " I saio 
your friend," &c. 

410. This tense is used to express an act or state continued through a 
period of time reaching to the present; as, u He has studied grammar six 
months " — " He has been absent [now] six years." 

411. It is used to express acts long since completed, when the refer- 
ence is not to the act of finishing, but to the thing finished and still 
existing; as, u Cicero has written orations" — "Moses has told us many 
important facts in his writings " — " Of old thou hast laid the foundation 
of the earth, and the heavens are the work of thy hand." But if the 
thing completed does not now exist, or if the reference is to the act of 
finishing, and not to the present continuance of the thing finished, this 
tense can not be used ; thus, we can not say, " Cicero has written poems," 
because no such productions now remain. Nor, " In the beginning God 

4 



74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

has created the heavens," because reference is only to the act of God at a 
certain past time indicated by the words " In the beginning." 

412. It is used in the same manner as the present (406), instead of the 
future-perfect, to represent an action, &c, as perfect at a future time ; as, 
" The cock shall not crow, till thou hast denied me thrice." 

413. Sometimes this tense is used in effect to deny the present existence 
of that of which the verb expresses the completion; as, "I have been 
young " — meaning, this is now finished — " I am young no more." 

414. This tense corresponds to the Latin perfect definite. 

415. The Past tense expresses what took place in past 
time; as, " In the beginning God created the heavens." 
— " God said, Let there be light." — " The ship sailed 
when the mail arrived." See 913. 

416. The time expressed by this tense is regarded as entirely past , and, 
however near to the present, it does not embrace it ; as, " I saw your 
friend a moment ago" — " I wrote yesterday." 

417. In such expressions as " I wrote this morning " — " this week " — - 
" this year" &c, the reference is to a point of time now entirely past, in 
these yet unfinished periods. 

418. This tense is used to express what was customary in past time ; as, 
41 She attended church regularly all her life." 

419. The Past-perfect tense represents an action or 
event as completed at or before a certain past time ; as, 
" I had walked six miles that day" — " John had been 
busy that week " — " The ship had sailed when the mail 
arrived " — that is, the ship sailed before the mail arrived. 
See 914, 915. 

420. The sign of the past-perfect is had; second person, hadst. This 
tense corresponds to the Latin pluperfect. 

421. The Future tense expresses what will take place 
in future time ; as, " I will see you again, and your hearts 
shall rejoice" 

422. The signs of the future are shall, will. 

423. The Future-perfect tense intimates that an ac- 
tion or event will be completed at or before a certain time 
yet future ; as, " I shall have got my lesson by ten o'clock" 
— " He will have finished his letter before you are ready." 

424. The signs of the future-perfect are shall have, will have. 



ETYMOLOGY — VERB — TENSES. 75 

TENSES OF THE POTENTIAL MOOD. 

425# The Potential mood has four tenses — the Present, 
the Present-perfect, the Past, and the Past-perfect. 

426. The Present potential expresses present liberty, power, or 
obligation. 

427. The signs of the Present are may, can, must. 

428. The Present-perfect, in this mood, does not correspond in 
meaning to the same tense in the indicative, but more properly ex- 
presses present possibility, liberty, necessity, &c, with respect to 
an act or state supposed to be past ; thus, " He may have written,'' 1 
means, It is possible that he wrote, or has written ; u He must have 
written" means, " It must be that he wrote, or has written. 

429. The signs of the Present-perfect potential are, may have, can have, 
must have. 

430. The Past potential is very indefinite with respect to time, 
being used to express liberty, ability, purpose, or duty, sometimes 
with regard to what is past, sometimes with regard to what is pres- 
ent, and sometimes with regard to what is future ; thus — 

Past — " He could not do it then, for he was otherwise engaged." 
Present — "I would do it with pleasure now, if I could" 
Future — " If he would delay his journey a few days, I might 
[could, would, or should] accompany him." 

431. The signs of the Past potential are, might, could, would, shoidd. 

432. The Past-perfect potential, also, never corresponds in time to 
the past-perfect indicative ; that is, it never represents an act, &c, 
as completed at a certain past time, but expresses the liberty, ability, 
purpose, or duty, with respect to the act or state expressed by the 
verb, as now past ; thus, " He could have written" means, He was 
able to write." 

433. The signs of the Past-perfect potential are, might have, could 
have, woidd have, should have. 

434. The Future and Future-perfect are wanting in the Potential. 

TENSES OP THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

435. The Subjunctive mood, in its proper form, has only the 
Present tense. The verb "to be" has the present and the past. 
The indicative mood used subjunctiveiy (386), furnishes what may 
be called a second form of the present subjunctive, and the only form 
of the other subjunctive tenses. 



76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

436. The Present subjunctive, in its proper form, according to 
present approved usage, has always a future reference ; that is, it 
denotes a present uncertainty or contingency respecting a supposed 
future action or event; thus, "If he write" is equivalent to, "If 
he should write," or, "If he shall write."* 

437. Uncertainty or contingency respecting a supposed present 
action or state, is expressed by the present indicative used subjunc- 
tively ; as, "If he writes as well as he reads, he will succeed." 

438. The Present-perfect subjunctive is only the same tense of 
the indicative, used subj unctively. Such expressions as "If she 
have brought up children," &c. (1 Tim. v. 10), are now obsolete. 

439. The Past subjunctive is used in two senses — 

1. It is used to express a past action or state as conditional or con- 
tingent ; as, "If he torote that letter he deserves credit, and should 
be rewarded; " "If he was at home, I did not know it." 

2. It expresses a supposition with respect to something present, 
and implies a denial of the thing supposed; as, " If I had the 
money now, I would pay it," implying, I have it not. Used in this 
way, the verb "iojbe" (and of course the passive voice of transitive 
verbs) has a separate form in the singular, but not in the plural, viz., 
I were, thou wert, he were ; for I was, thou wast, he was : thus, " If 
my kingdom toere of this world, then would my servants fight," 
implying, It is not of this world ; " that thou wert as my brother," 
implying, " thou art not." 

440. In this way, the Past subjunctive seems to be always used when 
the conjunctive term is omitted, and the verb or auxiliary is placed be- 
fore its nominative (389) ; as, " Hadst thou been here, my brother had 
not [would not have (358)] died." 

441. When a supposition, &c, respecting something past, is expressed 
in this way, the Past-perfect must be used ; as, " If I had had the money 
yesterday, I would have paid it," implying, I had it not; "0 that thou 
hadst been as my brother," implying "thou wast not." 

442. Though the past tense, used in this way, refers to a present act or 
state, yet, as it has the past form, it should, in parsing, be called the past 
tense. 

* From this usage, some grammarians regard this as an elliptical form of the future, 
or of the past potential, in a future sense, the signs shall or should "being omitted ; and 
some have given it as a future, in the conjugation of the verb. However plausible this 
may appear, from the present prevailing usage, there can be no doubt that this, so-called, 
elliptical future was formerly considered, and is even still used, as & present subjunctive. 
It is often used when the time is manifestly present, and in such a way that neither shall, 
nor should, nor any similar term, can be supplied without changing the sense ; and 
where the present usage would require the present indicative ; thus, u Though the Lord 
be [is] high," &c — Ps. cxxxviii. 6.—" If thou be [art] the son of God."— Mattk. iv. 3, 6, 
— "That" which thou sowest is not quickened except it die [dies]." — 1 Cor. xv. 36. — 
" Whether he be [is] a sinner or not, I know not."— John ix. 25, &e. 



ETYMOLOGY VERB — TENSES. 7 7 

TENSE OF THE IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

443. The Imperative mood has only the present tense, and that 
has respect to the time of the command, exhortation, &c. The do- 
ing of the thing commanded, must, of course, be posterior to the 
command requiring it. 

TENSES OP THE INFINITIVE MOOD. 

444, The Infinitive mood has two tenses, the Present 
and the Perfect* These do not so properly denote the 
time of the action, &c, as its state (446 and 449) ; as, 
" To write "—" To have written." 

445. In the other moods, the time expressed by the tenses, is estimated 
from the time of speaking, which is always regarded as present ; as, " I 
wrote " (that is, in a time now past), " I write " (that is, in time now pres- 
ent), " I shall write " (that is, in time now futurej. But the infinitive 
represents the action or state expressed as present, not, however, always 
at the time of speaking, but at the time indicated by the preceding verb, 
or some other word in the sentence; as, "He wishes to write" — now — 
to-morrow — next week, &c. ; " He wished to write " — then (viz., a«t the 
time of wishing, now past) — next day — this day — to-morrow, &c. ; " He 
will wish to write " — then (viz., at the time of wishing, noiv future) — next 
day, &c. Hence the following definitions : — 

446. — 1st. The Present infinitive expresses an act or state not 
finished, indefinitely, or at any time referred to, expressed o.r im- 
plied ; as, U I wish to write" — U I wished to go" — u Apt to teach." 

447. The sign of the present infinitive is, to (549). 

448. After the verb to be, the present infinitive is sometimes used to 
express a future action or event ; as, "He is to go ; " "If he were to go" 
&c. (876-3). 

449. — 2d. The Perfect infinitive expresses an act or state as per- 
fect or finished, at any time referred to, expressed or implied ; as, 
" He is said to hate written " — already — yesterday — a year ago, &c. 

450. The sign of the perfect infinitive is, to have. 

451. In the use of the infinitive it is necessary to observe, that the 
Present must never be used in circumstances which imply & finished act; 
nor the Perfect in circumstances which imply an act not finished. Thus, 
it is improper to say, "He is said to write yesterday," because the lan- 
guage leads to regard the act as finished, since it took place in past time. 
It should be, "To have written yesterday (921). Nor can we say, "I 
hoped — I desired — I intended, &c. — to liave written yesterday," because 
an act regarded as perfect or finished, the doing of which, of course, is 
past, can not be the object of hope, desire, intention, &c. We should 
say, " I hoped to write yesterday " (920). 

* The word present is omitted before perfect, in designating this tense in the infinitive 
and participles, because the reference in these is only to the state of the act, &c , and 
not particularly to the present time (455). 



78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

PARTICIPLES. 
452, A Participle is a word which, as a verb, ex- 
presses an action or state, and, as an adjective, qualifies 
a noun or pronoun ; as ? " The man came seeing " — 
" Having finished our task, we may play." See 494, 507. 

453. Participles are so called, because they belong partly to the verb, 
and partly to the adjective. Prom the former, they have signification, 
voice, and tense ; and they perform the office of the latter. 

454. Verbs have three participles — the present , the 
past, and the perfect; as, loving , loved, having loved, in 
the active voice ; and being loved, loved, having been 
loved, in the passive. See 494, 507. 

455. The participles, taken by themselves, like the infinitive, do not so 
properly denote the time of an action, as its state ; while the time of the 
act, whether progressive or finished, is indicated by the verb with which 
it is connected, or by some other word ; thus, " I saw him writing yester- 
day ; " "I see him writing now ; " "I will see him writing to-morrow." 
In all these examples, writing expresses an act present, and still in pro- 
gress at the time referred to ; but with respect to the time of speaking, 
the act of writing, expressed in the first example, is past ; in the second, 
it is present; and in the third, it is future, as indicated by the accompany- 
ing verbs, saw, see, will see. 

456. The present participle active ends always in ing. In all 
verbs it has an active signification, and denotes an action or state as 
continuing and progressive ; as, " James is building a house." In 
some verbs, it has also a passive progressive signification ; as, "The 
house is building." Appendix VIII. p. 252. 

457. This usage, some suppose, has its origin in the use of the verbal 
noun after in, to express the same idea ; thus, " Forty and six years was 
this temple in building ; " " And the house when it was in building was 
built of stone made ready — so that there was neither hammer nor axe 
heard in the house, while it was in building." In the absence of empha- 
sis, the in being indistinctly uttered, came to be spoken, and consequently 
to be written, a; as, " While the ark was a preparing" (1 Pet. iii. 20), 
and finally to be omitted altogether. Similar changes of prepositions we 
have in the expressions, a going, a running, a hunting, a fishing, &c. 
Others, again, suppose that this ought to be regarded as an original idiom 
of the language, similar to the passive use of the infinitive active noticed 
before (397). But whether either of these is the true account of this 
matter or not, the fact is certain. It is therefore the duty of the gram- 
marian to note the fact, though he may be unable. to account for it. The 
following are examples : " This new tragedy was acting." — E. Everett. 
" An attempt was making." — D. Webster. "The fortress was building," 
ko,.— Irving. 



ETYMOLOG Y — P ARTICIPLES. 79 

J 

458. The Present participle passive has always a passive signify 
cation, but it has the same difference of meaning with respect to the 
time or state of the action as the present indicative passive (509). 

459. The Past participle has the same form in both voices. In the 
active voice, it belongs equally to transitive and intransitive verbs — has 
always an active sense — forms, with the auxiliaries, the Present-perfect 
and Past-perfect tenses — and is never found but thus combined ; as, "has 
loved" " had loved" &c. In the passive voice it has always a passive 
sense, and, with the verb to be as an auxiliary, forms the passive voice ; 
as, " He is loved;" or without it, qualifies a noun or pronoun ; as, " A 
man loved by all, hated by none." The difference between the active and 
the passive participle wiil be seen in the following examples, viz. : Active 
— u He has concealed a dagger under his cloak ; " Passive — " He has a 
dagger concealed under his cloak." 

460. The Perfect participle is always compound (477), and represents 
an action or state as completed at the time referred to. It has always an 
active sense in the active voice, and a passive sense in the passive ; as, 
Active : " Having finished our task, we may play." Passive : " Our task 
having been finished, we may play." 

461. The Present participle active, and the Past participle passive, 
when separated from the idea of time, become adjectives, and are 
usually called participial adjectives ; as, "An amusing story " — "A 
lound hook" (202-4). 

462. The participle in ing is often used as a verbal noun (107-3), 
having the nominative and the objective case, but not the posses- 
sive. In this character, the participle of a transitive verb may still 
retain the government of the verb ; as, " In keeping his command- 
ments there is a great reward ; " or, it may be divested of it by in- 
serting an article before it, and the preposition of after it ; as, " In 
the keeping of his commandments." When of follows the partici- 
ple, the or a {an) should precede it (899). But of can not be used 
before a preposition. 

463. So also the Perfect participle ; as, "There is satisfaction in having 
done well" — "His having done his duty, was, afterward, a source of satis- 
faction." 



NUMBER AND PERSON. 

464. Every tense of the verb has two Numbers, the Singular and 
the Plural, corresponding to the singular and the plural of nouns and 
pronouns. The singular asserts of one ; the plural, of more than one. 

465. In each number, the verb has three Persons, called the first, 
second, and third. The first asserts of the person speaking ; the 
second, of the person spoken to ; and the third, of the person or 
thing spoken of. 



SO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

466. The subject of the verb, in the first person singular, is always 
/, in the plural, we ; in the second person singular, thou, in the 
plural, ye or you ; in the third person, the subject is the name of 
any person or thing spoken of, or a pronoun of the third person in 
its stead ; also, it may be an infinitive mood, or a clause of a sen- 
tence, or any thing of which a person can think or speak. (762.) 

467. In ordinary discourse, the imperative mood has only the sec- 
ond person, because a command, exhortation, &c, can be addressed 
only to the person or persons spolcen to. 

468. In such expressions as il Lei us love" — "Let him love" — u Let them 
love" — phrases by which the first and the third person of the imperative 
in some languages are rendered — let is the proper imperative, in the 
second person, with thou or ye as its subject understood, and love the 
infinitive without the sign (877). Thus, " Let [thou] us [to] love," &c. 

469. This mode of expression is sometimes used, even when no defi- 
nite individual is addressed ; as, u Let there be light." 

4T0. Among the poets, however, we sometimes find a first and a third 
person in the imperative ; as, u Confide we in ourselves alone" — "With 
virtue be we armed." — Hunts Tasso. " And rest we here, Matilda said." 
—Scott 

"Fall he that must beneath his rival's arm, 

And live the rest secure from future harm." — Pope. 
" Laugh those that can, weep those that may." — Scott. 

471. Such expressions as " Hallowed be thy name " — " Thy kingdom 
come" — "Be it enacted" — "So be it," &c, maybe regarded either as 
examples of the third person in the imperative, or as elliptical for " May" 
or " Let thy name be hallowed" — " Let it be enacted " — " Let it be so," 
&c. 

472. The infinitive, because it usually has no subject (872), has neither 
number nor person* 



CONJUGATION. 

473. The conjugation of a verb is the regular combi- 
nation and arrangement of its several voices, moods, 
tenses, numbers, and persons* 

474. In the active voice, most verbs have two forms — the Com- 
mon and the Progressive. See Appendix VIIL, I., 1, p. 252. 

* Inflection properly speaking, is the making of those changes of form which the 
verb undergoes in its several parts ; Conjugation is the combining or arranging of these 
forms in the several voices, moods, tenses, numbers, and persons, to which they belong. 
Both are usually included under the term conjugation. 



ETYMOLOGY — VERB — CONJUGATION. 81 

1. The Common form expresses the simple existence of the fact ; 

as, "He speaks"— u She writes"— "They tall." 

2. The Progressive form represents an action as begun, and in 

progress, but not completed. It is formed by annexing the 
present participle to the verb " to he" through all its moods 
and tenses; as, "lam writing" &c. (506). 

475. Besides these, there is in the present and the past indicative, a 
third form, called the Emphatic, used to express a fact with emphasis or 
force. It is formed by prefixing to the verb the auxiliary do, in the pres- 
ent tense, and did, in the past ; as, " I do write " — " I did write." The 
other tenses, and also the progressive form and passive voice, are ren- 
dered emphatic, by placing emphasis on the auxiliary ; as, " I have writ- 
ten " — " I am writing " — " The letter is written." 

476. To these may be added, the solemn form of the third person sin- 
gular, present indicative, ending in th, or eth, instead of the common, in 
s or es. Thus — solemn form, loveth, hath loved; common, loves, has loved. 

477. The tenses of the verb, inflected without an auxiliary, are 
called Simple tenses ; those inflected with an auxiliary placed before 
the past participle, are called Compound tenses. 

478. The only regular terminations added to verbs are — 

1. The tense endings : ed of the past tense and past participle 

(326 and note) ; and ing of the present participle. 

2. The personal endings : st, or est, of the second person singu- 

lar ; as, lovest, actest (483) : and 8, es, or eth, of the third ; as, 
reads, teaches, or teacheth. The other changes are made by 
auxiliaries. 

479. In the present and the past tense, when st will easily coalesce with 
the final consonant, it is added in the same syllable ; as, saidst, lovedst. 
But when it will not easily coalesce, or the verb ends in a vowel sound, 
est is commonly added, and forms another syllable ; as, wishest, teachest, 
lovest, goest, drawest, sayest, vexest, blessest, &c. 

480. In the present indicative, the endings of the third person singular, 
s and es, are subject to the rules for the plural number of nouns (137-142) ; 
as, sits, reads, ivishes, teaches, loves, goes, draws, carries, says, &c. 

481. In the solemn style, instead of s or es, the third person singular 
has eth, which always adds a syllable, except in doth, hath, saith, for doeth, 
haveth, sayeth. 

482. The verb need is often used in the third person singular of the 
present tense, without the personal ending; as, "The truth need not be 
disguised " — " It need not be added." 

483. In annexing the tense and personal endings to the verb, the Rules 
III., IV., and VII., for spelling words (57, 60, 68), must be carefully ob- 
served. 

484. In the present indicative active, the three persons in the plural, 
and the first in the singular, are alike. In the past tense, the three per- 

4* 



82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

sons in the plural, and the first and third in the singular, are all alike, 
except in the verb " to be" in which the form in the singular is different 
from that of the plural; thus, singular, was, wast, was — plural, were. 

485. The principal parts of the verb are the Present 
indicative, the Past indicative, and the Past participle. 
In parsing, the mentioning of these parts is called 
conjugating the verb. Thus : — 

Present. Past. Past Participle. 

Regular (326), Love, loved, loved. 

Irregular (327), "Write, wrote, written. 

CONJUGATION OF THE IRREGULAR VERB " TO BE." 

486. The irregular and intransitive verb u to ~be" is used as a prin- 
cipal verb, and also as an auxiliary in the passive voice, and in the 
progressive form of the active voice. It is thus inflected through 
all its moods and tenses : — 

PEINCIPAL PARTS. 

Present, am. Past, was. Past participle, teen. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 







PRESENT TENSE. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


1. 


I am.* 


1. We are. 


2. 


Thou art (244). 


2. You are (245). 


3. 


He is. 


3. They are. 

PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE. 
Sign, have. 


1. 


I have been. 


1. We have been. 


2. 


Thou hast been. 


2. You have been. 


3. 


He has been. 


3. They have been 

PAST TENSE. 


1. 


I was. 


1. We were. 


2. 


Thou wast. 


2. You were. 


3. 


He was. 


3. They were. 



* Be and beest were formerly used in the present indicative ; as, " We be true men V — 
Bible — for, We are true men. — " If thou beest he." — Milton. — " There be as many miseries 
beyond riches as on this side of them." — Walton. This usage is now obsolete. 



ETYMOLOGY — VERB — CONJUGATION. 83 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 

Sign, had. 

1. I had been. 1. We had been. 

2. Thou hadst been. 2. You had been. 

3. He had been. 3. They had been. 

FUTURE TENSE. 

Signs, shall, will. Inflect with each. 

1. I shall be. 1. We shall be. 

2. Thou shalt be. 2. You shall be. 

3. He shall be. 3. They shall be. 

FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE. 

Signs, shall have, will have. — Inflect with each. 

1. I shall have been. 1. We shall have been. 

2. Thou shalt have been. 2. You shall have been. 

3. He shall have been. 3. They shall have been. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Signs, may, can, must. — Inflect with each. 
Singular, Plural. 

1. I may be. 1. We may be. 

2. Thou mayst be. 2. You may be. 

3. He may be. 3. They may be. 

PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE. 

Signs, may have, can have,* or must have. — Inflect with each. 

1. I may have been. 1. We may have been. 

2. Thou mayst have been. 2. You may have been. 

3. He may have been. 3. They may have been. 

PAST TENSE. 

Signs, might, could, would, should. — Inflect with each. 

1. I might be. 1. We might be. 

2. Thou mightst be. 2. You might be. 

3. He might be. 3. They might be. 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 

Signs, might have, could have, would have, should have. — Inflect with each. 

1. I might have been. 1. We might have been. 

2. Thou mightst have been. 2. You might have been. 

3. He might have been. 3. They might have been. 

* Can have as an auxiliary, is not used in affirmative sentences. 



84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD (487). 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If t I be. 1. If we be. 

2. If thou be. 2. If you be. 

3. If he be. 3. If they be. 

PAST TENSE. 

1. If I were. - 1. If we were. 

2. If thou wert, or were. 2. If you were. 

3. If he were. 3. If they were. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. Be, or be thou. 2. Be, or be ye or you. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. PERFECT TENSE. 

To be. To have been. 

PARTICIPLES. 
Present, Being. Past, Been. Perfect, Having been. 

487. All the tenses of the indicative, and also of the potential 
mood, are used subjunctively, by placing the conjunction before 
them, thus: Present— "If I am," u If thou art," "If he is," &c. 
(386). Present-perfect—" If I have been," &c. Past—" If I was " 
&c. 

488. The verb to he, followed by an infinitive, forms a particular 
future tense, which often expresses duty, necessity, or purpose; as, 

< 4 Government is to be supported " — " We are to pay our debts" 

"If we were to depend on others "=" If we should depend," &c 
(876-3). 

489. This verb has no progressive form. The emphatic form is 
used only in the imperative ; as, " Do thou be"— "Do you be." 

Anomalous Usage. 

490. Were is sometimes used for would be; and had been, for would have 

been,&s, " This were excellent advice." — Cowley. u It were a folly." 

Sidney. " My fortune had been his, for would have been (358).— Dryden. 

t The conjunctions, if, though, lest, unless, &c, do not form part of the subjunctive 
mood, but are placed before it to express a condition or contingency (388). The nunil 
m ^l°d° ter lndlcative > as a ^bjunctive, with one or other of these conjunctions 



ETYMOLOGY — VERB — CONJUGATION. 85 

PARSING. 

491. A verb is parsed by stating its class (transitive 
or intransitive), its form (regular or irregular), conju- 
gating it if irregular* (485), and stating its tense, 
mood, voice, person, and number, and also the subject of 
which it affirms ; thus, 

"He is." Is is a verb, intransitive, irregular — am, was, been — found 

in the present, indicative, active— third person, singular, and affirms of 
its subject he. 

492, Besides stating the several properties of the verb, as above, the 
teacher may occasionally require the pupil, as a sort of reviewing exer- 
cise, to assign a reason for each statement ; thus : — 
"Is— a verb, because it affirms being or existence of "He" 

intransitive — it has no object. # 

irregular— Its past tense and past participle do not end in ed—am 7 

was, been, 
present — it refers to present time. 
indicative— It declares simply, and without limitation. 
active— its subject is not acted upon. 
third person — its subject is spoken of. 
singular — it asserts of but one, "Re." 
As this process would consume much time, it, of course, can not often 
be used, and it is not necessary after the pupil is familiar with it, 
and prompt in assigning the reasons as above. 

SENTENCES. 
493. Nominative. 

1 A sentence is an affirmation, and must contain a verb, in the indica- 
tive potential, or subjunctive mood, by which -the affirmation is made ; 
and'a subject of which the verb affirms. This subject is generally a noun 
or pronoun, in the nominative case ; thus, the sentence, "God is good, 
contains an affirmation. The verb til affirms of the noun God, which is 
of course its subject, and in the nominative case. 

2 Sentences which have the verb in the imperative mood, contain a 
command, exhortation, &c. The subject is that to which the command is 
given (117). 

3. The subject of a verb, except in the infinitive mood, is always in 
the nominative case. 

4. When that which is affirmed of a subject in the nominative case, is 
something expressed by a noun or pronoun after the verb > to-be, that noun 
or pronoun is always in the nominative case, and called the predicate- 
nominative, or nominative g fterjhtj^^ * phtlosa- 

* In parsing, it will save time to^onulc^ugating the yerb when it js regular ;, i and it 
is unnecessary ; because its being announced to be regular *f^%^£™ *? g™; 
cipal parts. All irregular yerbs should be conjugated as in 513. Eyery teachei, how- 
ever, will adopt the course which he prefers. 



86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

pher." Here philosopher is in the predicate-nominative, and expresses 
what the verb "was" affirms of its subject "Socrates." See 796. 

EXERCISES. 

1. State the tense, mood, person, and number, of the verb u to be," in 
the following examples; thus, "Am" present, indicative, active, first 
person singular. 

2. Parse all the words. Thus, "Am," a verb, intransitive, irregular — 
am, was, been — in the present, indicative, active, first person singular : — 
(491), and the pronouns as directed (253). 

Am ; is ; art ; I was ; we were ; they are ; you have been ; 
she had been ; he was ; we will be ; they shall be ; we had 
been ; hast been ; hadst been ; wast. 

We may be ; they may have been ; he might be ; you might 
have been ; you must be ; they should have been ; if I be ; 
thou wert ; though he were ; if I had been ; though I were ; if 
we could have been ; they might be. 

Be ; to be ; do thou be ; be ye ; to have been ; being ; been ; 
having been ; be thou. 

CONJUGATION OF THE REGULAR VERB " TO LOVE." 

494 • The regular transitive verb " To love " is in- 
flected through all its moods and tenses as follows ; — 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

Present, love. Past, loved. Past participle, loved. 

"indicative mood. 

PRESENT TENSE.* 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I love. 1. We love. 

2. Thou lovest. 2. You love. 

3. He loves {or loveth). 3. They love. 

* EMPHATIC FORMS. 
PRESENT TENSE, 

1. I do love. 1. We do lore. 

2. Thou dost love. 2. You do love. 

3. He does love [or doth love.) 3. They do love. 

PAST TENSE, 

1. I did love 1. We did love, 

2. Thou didst love. 2. You did love. 
3 He did love. 3, They did love. 



ETYMOLOGY — VERB — CONJUGATION. 87 

PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE. 

Sign, have. 

1. I have loved. 1. We have loved. 

2. Thou hast loved. 2. You have loved. 

3. He has loved. 3. They have loved. 

PAST TENSE. 

1. I loved. 1. We loved. 

2. Thou lovedst. 2. You loved. 

3. He loved. 3. They loved. 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 
Sign, had. 

1. I had loved. 1. We had loved. 

2. Thou hadst loved. 2. You had loved. 

3. He had loved. 3. They had loved. 

FUTURE TENSE. 

Signs, shall, will. — Inflect with each. 

1. I shall love. 1. We shall love. 

2. Thou shalt love. 2. You shall love. 

3. He shall love. 3. They shall love. 

FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE. 

Signs, shall have, will have. — Inflect with each. 

1. I shall have loved. 1. We shall have loved. 

2. Thou shalt have loved. 2. You shall have loved. 

3. He shall have loved. 3. They shall have loved. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Signs, may, can, must. — Inflect with each. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may love. 1. We may love. 

2. Thou mayst love. 2. You may love. 

3. He may love. 3. They may love. 

PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE. 

Signs, may have, can have* must have. — Inflect with each. 

1. I may have loved. 1. We may have loved. 

2. Thou mayst have loved 2. You may have loved. 

3. He may have loved. 3. They may have loved. 

* Can have, as an auxiliary, is not used in affirmative sentences. 



88 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



PAST TENSE. 

Signs, might, could, would, should. — Inflect with each. 

1. I might love. 1. We might love. 

2. Thou mightst love. 2. You might love. 

3. They might love. 



3. He might love. 



PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 

Signs, might have, could have, would have, should have. — Inflect with each. 

1. I might have loved. 1. We might have loved. 

2. Thou mightst have loved. 2. You might have loved. 

3. He might have loved. 3. They might have loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD (487). 
PRESENT TENSE (435). 

Plural. 

1. If we love. 

2. If you love. 

3. If they love. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Singidar. Plural. 

Love, or love thou. 2. Love, or love ye or you. 
Do thou love. 2. Do ye or you love. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Perfect, To have loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Past, Loved. Perfect, Having loved. 



Singidar. 

1. If I love. 

2. If thou love. 

3. If he love. 



Common form. 
Emphatic form. 



Present, To love; 



Present, Loving. 



495. PRELIMINARY ORAL EXERCISE. 

Review the exercise (324), and then proceed thus :— 

When you say, " John loves learning," which word expresses what 
John does ? What part of speech a*re words which express the act of a 
person or thing (314) ? Then what part of speech is loves ? Why? 

Whose act does loves express ? Then what is John to the verb loves 
(315)? Then John is the subject of loves. 

What is it said that John loves f Learning. What does John do to 
learning ? Of what class are verbs which express what one person or 
thing does to another (317)? Is loves, then, transitive or intransitive? 
Transitive. 

Conjugate love (485). What is its past tense?— its past participle? 
In what do they end ? Of what form are verbs which have the past tense 
and the past participle ending in ed (326) ? Then is love regular or irreg- 
ular? Regular — conjugated, love, loved, loved. 



ETYMOLOGY — VERB — CONJUGATION. 89 

(Do all verbs form the past tense and the past participle by adding ed? 
Let us try. Is it right to say, "I go"? Would you say, " I <jocd to church 
yesterday '' ? What would you say ? What are those verbs called which 
do not add ed to form the past tense and the past participle (327) ? Then 
is " go " regular or irregular ? Why ?) 

When you say, u John loves learning," does loves express a present, a 
past, or a future act ? When a verb expresses a present act, in what 
tense is it (402)? In what tense, then, is loves I Present. Why ? 

(What would you say, to express the same act as past?— as future? 
Then what tense is loved? — will love ?) 

When you say, " John loves learning," do you declare a fact simply, 
or with any limitation ? What mood declares an act simply (378) ? Then 
what mood is loves ? Indicative. 

In this sentence, does the subject John act, or is it acted upon? What 
voice represents the subject as acting (368) ? Then what voice is loves I 

Is John represented here as speaking, spoken to, or spoken of? What 
person represents the subject as spoken of (465) ? Then what person is 
loves ? Third person. 

Does loves assert the act of one person, or of more than one? What 
number asserts of one (464) ? Then what number is loves I Singular. 

496* The facts ascertained by this process will stand in order, thus : 
"Loves" — a verf), transitive, regular, conjugated love, loved, loved — found 
in the present indicative, active, third person singular, and expresses the 
act of "John" This is called parsing, in which the same order of state- 
ment should be observed. 

497. This may be extended, by giving the reasons of each statement, 
as follows : 
"Loves" — a verb, because it expresses an act of its subject (314). 

transitive, because it expresses an act that passes over from the 
actor — John to an object learni?ig'(3lV). 

regular, because its past tense and past participle end in ed. 

conjugated, love, loved, loved (485). 

present, — it expresses what John does now (402). 

indicative, — it expresses the act simply (378). 

active, — it represents its subject as acting (368). 

third person, — its subject is spoken of (465). 

singular, — it asserts of only o?ie(464). 

EXERCISES, NO I. 

Inflect the following irregular verbs in the same manner as the verb 

" to love": — taking care to use the past participle in the compound 
tenses (477). 

Present. Past. Past Participle. 

Go went gone 

Write wrote written 

Do did done 

Give gave given 

Have had had 



90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISES, NO. II. 

1. In the following exercise, tell the tense, mood, voice, person and 
number, and always in this order, thus : " Loves " — Present, indicative, 
active, third person, singular. 

2. In the Imperative, omit the tense, and say thus, "Love thou 1 ' — Imper- 
ative, active, second person, singular. 

$. In the Infinitive and Participles, omit the person and number, and say 
thus, " To love" — Present, infinitive, active ; " Loving " — Present partici- 
ple, active. 

N. B. — The pronoun prefixed is no part of the verb, but helps to show 
its person and number. The auxiliaries (or signs) are not taken separ- 
ately, but always with the. verb ; so that the two words, and sometimes 
three, as in in the future-perfect indicative, are parsed together as one 
word; thus, "Has loved" — the present-perfect, indicative, active, third 
person, singular. 

He loves.— We have loved.— He loved.— They had loved.— 
You shall love. — They may have loved. — We might love. — 
Love thou. — To love.— You had gone.— They will go. — To 
have gone.— We will write.— They may write.— They should 
go.— He has fallen.— You had given.— We might have gone.— 
James has written. — Robert loves to write. — To write is useful. 
—Writing is useful.— Having written.— We gave.— They have 
given. — You will give. 

EXERCISES, NO. III. 

THE OBJECTIVE CASE. 

498. A transitive verb, in the active voice, tells what its subject does 
to some other person or* thing. That person or thing is the object of the 
verb, and is in the objective case. Thus, u He loves us," loves is a transi- 
tive verb, in the active voice, and tells what its subject, he, does to us. 
Us, then, is its object, and is in the objective case. See also 320. 

1. In the following exercises, tell which words are verbs, and why ; 
whether transitive or intransitive, and why ; what is the subject, and why ; 
and if transitive, what is their object, and why. 

2. Conjugate the verbs, and tell their tense, mood, voice, person, and 
number; thus, "Loves" — Terb, transitive, regular — love, loved,loved — in 
the present, indicative, active, third person, singular. 

He loves us. — I will love him. — Good boys study their les- 
sons. — Children love play. — God created the world. — Remember 
thy Creator. — Do good to all men. — Forgive your enemies. — 
He that giveth to the poor (201) lendeth to the Lord.— You 
should study grammar.— We should read the best books.— Bad 
books injure the character. — War makes rogues, and peace 
hangs them. — Children, obey your parents. — A good cause 
makes a strong arm. — Show mercy, and thou shalt find it. 



ETYMOLOGY — VERB — CONJUGATION. 91 

IV. 



In the preceding exercises (No. m.) parse each word in order ; the 
noun, as directed (182); the article, as directed (194); the adjective, as 
directed (225) ; the pronoun, as directed (253) ; and the verb, as directed 
(491 or 496). Or, more fully, as an occasional exercise (492 or 497), 
thus ; — 

"Loves" — a verb >, because it expresses an act, viz., of lie. 
transitive, because it has an object, us (498). 
regular, — its past tense and past participle end in ed ; 
conjugated, love, loved, loved. 

present, because the act takes place in present time. 
indicative, — it declares the fact simply, 
third person, — its subject he is spoken of. 
singular, — it asserts of but one. 
Negative form of the Verb. 

499. The verb is made to deny, by placing the word not after the 
simple form; as, " Thou lovest not;" and between the auxiliary 
and the verb in the compound form ; as, "I do not love." When 
two auxiliaries are used, it is placed between them; as, "I would 
not have loved." 

500. In the infinitive and participles, the negative is put first ; as, 
" Not to love "— " Not loving"— 44 Not loved." 

501. The simple form is seldom used with the negative. In the present 
and past tenses, the compound or emphatic form is more common. The 
following synopsis will show the manner of using the negative : — 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present. 1. I do not love. 2. Thou dost not love, &c. 

Pres.-Perf. 1. I have not loved. 2. Thou hast not loved, &c. 

Past. 1. I did not love. 2. Thou didst not love, &c. 

Past-Perf. 1. I had not loved. 2. Thou hadst not loved, &c. 

Future. 1. I will not love. 2. Thou wilt not love, &c. 

Fut.-Perf. 1. I shall not have 2. Thou shalt not have loved, 
loved. &c. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present. 1. I can not love. 2. Thou dost not love, &c. 

Pres.-Perf. 1. I may not have 2. Thou mayst not have loved, 

loved. &c. 

Past. 1. I might not love. 2. Thou mightst not love, &c. 

Past-Perf. 1. I might not have 2. Thou mightst not have loved, 

loved. &c. 



92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD (487). 

Present. 1. If I do not love. 2. If thou do not love, &c. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Singular. Plural 

2. Love not, or do not thou love. 2. Love not, or do not ye love. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present. Not to love. Perfect. Not to have loved. 

PARTICIPLE. 
Present. Not loving. Past. Not loved. 

Perfect. Not having loved. 

Interrogative form of the Vera. 

502. The verb is made to ask a question by placing the nomina- 
tive or subject after the simple form ; as, "Lovest thou?" and be- 
tween the auxiliary and the verb in the compound forms; as, " Do 
I love ? " When there are two auxiliaries, the nominative is placed 
between them ; as, " Shall I have loved ?" 

503. The subjunctive, imperative, infinitive, and participles, can 
not have the interrogative form. 

504. The simple form of the verb is seldom used interrogatively. The 
following synopsis will show how the verb is put into the interrogative 
form: — 





INDICATIVE 


MOOD. . 


Present. 1. 


Do I love ? 


2. 


Dost thou love ? &c. 


Pres.-Perf. 1. 


Have I loved ? 


2. 


Hast thou loved ? &c. 


Past. 1. 


Did I love ? 


2. 


Didst thou love ? &c. 


Past-Perf. 1. 


Had I loved ? 


2. 


Hadst thou loved ? &c. 


Future. 1. 


Shall I love ? 


2. 


Wilt thou love ? &c. 



Fut.-Perf. 1. Shall I have loved?2. Wilt thou have loved ? &c. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present. 1. May I love ? 2. Canst thou love? &c. 

Pres.-Perf. 1. May I have loved? 2. Canst thou have loved ? &c. 
Past. 1. Might I love? 2. Couldst thou love ? &c. 

Past-Perf. 1. Might I have 2. Couldst thou have loved ? 

loved ? &c. 

505. Interrogative sentences are made negative by placing the 
negative either before or after the nominative ; as, " Do I not love? 1 ' 
or," u Do not T love?" 



ETYMOLOGY — VERB — CONJUGATION. 93 

EXERCISES. 

1 Inflect the verb to love in the negative form. 

2 Inflect the indicative, and potential, in the interrogative form. 

3. Change the exercises (p. 90) into the negative form, and write them 

4. Change the examples in the indicative and the potential into the 
interrogative form, and write them out. 

Progressive form of the Active Voice. 

506. The Progressive form of the verb is inflected by prefixing 
the verb to be, through all its moods and tenses, to the present par- 
ticiple; thus — 

Present. 1. I am writing. 2. Thou art writing, &c. 

Pres.-Perf. 1. I have been writing. 2. Thou hast been writing,&c. 
Past. 1. I was writing. 2. Thou wast writing, &c. 

Past-Perf. 1. I had been writing. 2. Thou hadst been writing, &c. 
Future. 1. I shall be writing. 2. Thou shalt be writing, &c. 
Fut.-Perf. 1. I shall or will have 2. Thou shalt or wilt have been 
been writing. writing, &c. 

Note. — Verbs which in the common form imply continuance, do not 
usually admit the progressive form ; thus, " I am loving " (if proper), 
would mean nothing more than "I love." Appendix vm. 1, 2. p. 252. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Change the following verbs from the simple into the progressive 
form : — 

He writes. — They read. — Thou teachest. — We have learned. 
— He had written. — They go. — You will build. — I ran. — John 
has done it. — We taught. — He stands. — He stood. — They will 
stand. — They may read. — We can sew. — You should study. 
— We might have read. 

2. Change the following, from the progressive into the simple form: — 
We are writing. — They were singing. — They have been 

riding. — We might be walking. — I may have been sleeping. — 
They are coming. — Thou art teaching. — They have been eating. 
— He has been moving. — We have been defending. 

3. Parse these verbs, in the progressive form; thus, "We are writing 11 
— "are writing 11 is a , verb, transitive, irregular — write, wrote, written — in 
the present, indicative, active, first person, plural, progressive form. 

4. Change the exercises, No. 2, into the negative form ; thus, " We 
are not writing ;" — into the interrogative form ; as, "Are we writing? " — 
into the negative-interrogative form; *$, "Ave we not writing ? " or, "Are 
not we writing ? " 



94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

PASSIVE VOICE. 

507. The Passive voice is inflected by adding the 
past participle to the verb " to be" as an auxiliary, 
through all its moods and tenses, thus (486) : — 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

Present, Am loved. Past, Was loved. Past participle, Loved. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I am loved. 1. We are loved. 

2. Thou art loved, 2. You are loved. 

3. He is loved. 3. They are loved. 

PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE. 

Sign, have. 

1. I have been loved. 1. We have been loved. 

2. Thou hast been loved. 2. You have been loved. 

3. He has been loved. 3. They have been loved. 

PAST TENSE. 

1. I was loved. 1. We were loved. 

2. Thou wast loved. 2. You were loved. 

3. He was loved. 3. They were loved. 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 

Sign had. 

1. I had been loved. 1. We had been loved. 

2. Thou hadst been loved. 2. You had been loved. 

3. He had been loved. 3. They had been loved. 

FUTURE TENSE. 

Signs, shall, will, — Inflect with each. 

1. I shall be loved. 1. We shall be loved. 

2. Thou shalt be loved. 2. You shall be loved. 

3. He shall be loved. 3. They shall be loved. 

FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE. 

Signs, shall have, will have, — Inflect with each. 

1. I shall have been loved. 1. We shall have been loved. 

2. Thou shalt have been loved. 2. You shall have been loved. 

3. He shall have been loved. 3. They shall have been loved. 



ETYMOLOGY— VERB— CONJUGATION. 



95 



POTENTIAL MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Signs, may, can, must.— Inflect with each. 
Singular. ° _ «™* 

1 I may be loved. 1. We may be loved. 

2 Thou mayst be loved. 2. You may be loved. 
3. He may be loved. 3. They may be loved. 

* PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE. 

Si<ms may have, can have* or must have.- -Inflect with each. 

1 I may have been loved. 1. We may have been loved. 

2 Thou mayst have been loved. 2. You may have been loved. 
3*. He may have been loved. 3. They may have been loved. 

PAST TENSE. 

Sio-ns, might, could, would, s hovM.— Inflect with each. 

1 I might be loved. 1. We might be loved. 

2 Thou mightst be loved. 2. You might be loved. 
3. He might be loved. 3. They might be loved. 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 

Sign, might have, could have, would have, should have.— Inflect with each. 

1 'i might have been loved. 1. We might have been loved. 

2 Thou mightst have been ioved.2. You might have been loved. 
i He might have been loved. 3. They might have been loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD (487). 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. PluraL 

1. If 1 1 be loved. 1. If we be loved. 

2. If thou be loved. 2. If you be loved. 

3. If he be loved. 3. If they be loved. 

PAST TENSE. 

1. If I were loved. 1. If we were loved. 

2. If thou wert or were loved. 2. If you were loved. 

3. If he were loved. 3. If they were loved 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Singular. PluraL 

2. Be thou loved. 2. Be ye or you loved. 



* Can Jiave as an auxiliary, is not used in affirmative sentences. 

t The conjunctions, if, though, lest, unless, &c do not form pari : of the subjunctive 
mood, but are placed before it to express a condition or contingency (388 )• J^ P^ 
may go over the indicative, as a subjunctive, with one or other of these conjunctions 



prefixed 



96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Pkesent, To be loved. Perfect, To have been loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 
Present, Being loved. Past, Loved. Perfect, Having been loved. 

OBSERVATIONS ON THE PASSIVE VOICE. 

508. The passive voice, in the finite moods, properly affirms of 
the subject the receiving of the act performed by the actor ; and in 
all tenses, except the present, expresses passively the same thing 
that is expressed by the same tense in the active voice : thus, "Cae- 
sar conquered Gaul," and "Gaul was conquered by Caesar," express 
the same thing. Hence, the subject of the verb in the passive 
voice, is the object of the act, i. e., it is acted upon by the actor (369). 

509. The present-passive has a somewhat different meaning in different 
verbs. In some, it represents the act as now in progress — in others, as 
now completed. In the former, it expresses passively the present con- 
tinuance of the action, just as the present active does. Thus, "James 
loves Robert," and " Robert is loved by James," express precisely the 
same thing. In the latter, the present passive expresses not the contin- 
uance, but the result of the act now finished, as a predicate of the sub- 
ject; as, " The house is built ! " The act of building is here represented 
not as continuing, but as completed ; and the result of the act expressed 
by "built" is predicated of "house." 

510. In all such verbs, the idea expressed by the present-passive differs 
from that expressed by the present-active ; the latter expressing a con- 
tinuing, the former, a completed act. A continuing act, in this class of 
verbs, can be expressed passively only when the participle in ing has a 
passive as well as an active sense (456). 

511. There is no passive form corresponding to the progressive form 
in the active voice, except where the participle in ing is used passively ; 
as, u The house is building" The form introduced within the last fifty 
years, and now defended by some grammarians, viz., u The house is being 
built" ought to be regarded only as a clumsy solecism. On this subject, 
see 457 and Appendix vin. p. 252. 

EXERCISES ON THE PASSIVE VOICE. 

EXERCISES, NO. t.\ 

Inflect the following verbs in the same manner as am loved, 507. 
Present Past. Past 'participle* 

Am commended, was commended, commended. 

Am taught, was taught, taught. 

Am told, was told, told. 

Am placed, was placed, placed. 



ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — IRREGULAR. 97 

EXERCISES, NO. II. 

1. In the following exercises, tell the tense, mood, voice, number, and 
person, and always in this order, viz. : " Is loved" — present, indicative, 
passive, third person, singular. 

2. In the imperative, omit the tense, and say thus: "Be ye loved," 
imperative, passive, second person, plural. 

3. In the infinitive and participles, omit the person and number, and say 
thus : " To be loved," present infinitive, passive. " Being loved," present 
participle, passive. 

They are loved ; we were loved ; thou art loved ; it is loved ; 
she was loved ; he has been loved ; you have been loved ; I 
have been loved ; thou hadst been loved ; we shall be loved ; 
thou wilt be loved ; they will be loved ; I shall have been loved ; 
you will have been loved. 

He can be loved ; thou mayst be loved ; she must be loved ; 
they might be loved ; ye would be loved ; they should be loved ; 
I could be loved ; thou mayst have been loved ; it may have 
been loved ; you might have been loved ; if I be loved ; thou 
wert loved ; we be loved ; they be loved. Be thou loved ; be 
ye loved ; you be loved. To be loved ; loved ; having been 
loved ; to have been loved ; being loved. 

4. Put the above exercises, first in the negative form, and then, in the 
indicative and potential mood, in the interrogative form, as directed (499 
and 502). 

EXERCISES, NO. III. 

Change the exercises (page 90) into the passive form. Write them 
out, and then parse them ; thus, " We are loved by him," &c. Put each 
example in the negative form, and those in the indicative or potential, in 
the interrogative form, as directed (499 and 502). 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 
512. An Irregular verb is one that does not form its 
past tense in the indicative active, and its past partici- 
ple, by adding ed to the present. 

513. *** The following list comprises nearly all the irregular verbs in 
the language. Those conjugated regularly, as well as irregularly, are 
marked with an R. Those in italics are obsolete, or obsolescent, and now 



but little used: 






. 


Present 




Past, 


Past partioip le. 


Abide 




abode 


abode 


Am 




was 


been 


Arise 





arose 


arisen 



98 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Present. 


Past. 


Past participle. 


Awake 


awoke, R. 


awaked 


Bake 


baked i 


baked, baleen 


Bear, to bring forth 


bore, bare 


born 


Bear, to carry 


bore, bare 


borne 


Beat 


beat 


beaten, beat 


Begin 


began 


begun 


Bend 


bent, R. 


bent, R. 


Bereave 


bereft, R. 


bereft, R. 


Beseech 


besought 


besought 


Bid 


bid, bade 


bidden, bid 


Bind, un- 


bound 


bound 


Bite 


bit 


bitten, bit 


Bleed 


bled 


bled 


Blow 


blew 


blown 


Break 


broke, "brake 


broken, brolce 


Breed 


bred 


bred 


Bring 


brought 


brought 


Build, re- 


built, R. 


built, R. 


Burn 


burnt, R. 


burnt, R. 


Burst 


burst 


burst 


Buy 


bought 


bought 


Cast 


cast 


cast 


Catch 


caught, R. 


caught, R. 


Chide 


chid 


chidden, chid 


Choose 


chose 


chosen 


Cleave, to adhere 


cleaved, clave 


cleaved 


Cleave, to split 


cleft, clove 


cleft, R, cloven 


Cling 


clung 


clung 


Clothe 


clad, R. 


clad, R, 


Come, be- 


came 


come 


Cost 


cost 


'cost* 


Creep 


crept 


crept 


Crow 


crew, R. 


crowed 


Cut 


cut 


cut 


Dare, to venture 


durst 


dared 


Dare,fo challengers E 


,. dared 


dared 


Deal 


dealt 


dealt, R. 


Dig 


dug, R. 


dug, R. 


Do, mis-un- 


did 


done 


Draw 


drew 


drawn 





ETYMOLOGY — VERBS- 


-IRREGULAR. 91 


Present. 


Past. 


Past participle. 


Dream 


dreamt, 


dreamt, R. 


Drink 


drank 


drank, drunk 


Drive 


drove 


driven 


Dwell 


dwelt, R. 


dwelt, R. 


Eat 


ate, eat 


eaten 


Fall, le- 


fell 


fallen 


Feed 


fed 


fed 


Feel 


felt 


felt 


Fight 


fought 


fought 


Find 


found 


found 


Flee 


fled 


fled 


Fling 


flung 


flung 


Fly 


flew 


flown 


Forbear 


forbore 


forborne 


Forget 


forgot 


forgotten, forgot 


Forsake 


forsook * 


forsaken 


Freeze 


froze 


frozen 


Get, ~be-,for- 


got, gat 


gotten, got 


Gild 


gilt, R. 


gilt, R. 


Gird, le- en- 


girt, R. 


girt, R. 


Give,ybr- mis- 


gave 


given 


Go, under- 


went 


gone 


Grave, en- R. 


graved 


graven, graved 


Grind 


ground 


ground 


Grow 


grew 


grown 


Hang 


hung 


hung* 


Have 


had 


had 


Hear 


heard 


heard 


Heave 


hove, R. 


hoven, R, 


Hew 


hewed 


hewn, R. 


Hide 


hid 


hidden, hid 


Hit 


hit 


hit 


Hold, be- with- 


held 


held, Jiolden 


Hurt 


hurt 


hurt 


Keep 


kept 


kept 


Kneel 


knelt, R. 


knelt, R. 


Knit 


knit, R. 


knit, knitted 


Know 


knew 


known 



* Hang, to take away life by hanging, is regular, as, u The robber was hanged, but the 
gown was hung up. 



100 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


Present. 


Past. 


Past participle. 


Lade, to load * 


laded 


laden 


Lay 


laid 


laid 


Lead, mis- 


led 


led 


Leave 


left 


left 


Lend 


lent 


lent 


Let 


let 


let 


Lie, to recline 


lay 


lain, lien 


Light 


lighted, lit 


lighted, lit 


Lose 


lost 


lost 


Make 


made 


made 


Mean 


meant 


meant 


Meet 


met 


met 


Mow 


mowed 


mown, R. 


Pay, re- 


paid 


paid 


Pen, to enclose 


pent, R. 


pent, R. 


Put 


put 


put 


Quit 


quit, R. 


quit, R. 


Read 


readt 


readt 


Rend 


rent 


rent 


Rid 


rid 


rid 


Ride 


rode, rid 


ridden, rid 


Ring 


rang, rung 


rung 


Rise, a- 


rose 


risen 


Rive 


rived 


riven, R. 


Rot 


rotted 


rotten, R. 


Run 


ran, run 


run 


Saw- 


sawed 


sawn, R 


Say 


said 


said 


See 


saw 


seen 


Seek 


sought 


sought 


Seethe 


seethed, sod 


seethed, sodden 


Sell 


sold 


sold 


Send 


sent 


sent 


Set, be- 


set 


set 


Shake 


shook 


shaken 


Shape, mis- 


shaped 


shapen, R. 


Shave 


shaved 


shaven, R. 


Shear 


sheared 


shorn, R. 


*Lade, to dip, is regular. 


t Pronounced red, 



ETYMOLOGY VERBS — IRREGULAR* 



101 



Present 


Post, 


Past participle. 


Shed 


shed 


shed 


Shine 


shone, R. 


shone, R. 


Shoe 


shod 


shod 


Shoot 


shot 


shot 


Show- 


showed 


shown, R. 


Shrink 


shrunk, shrank 


shrunk 


Shred 


shred 


shred 


Shut 


shut 


shut 


Sing 


sang, sung 


sung 


Sink 


sunk, sank 


sunk 


Sit 


sat 


sat 


Slay 


slew 


slain 


Sleep 


slept 


slept 


Slide 


slid 


slidden, slid 


Sling 


slung, slang 


slung 


Slink 


slunk 


slunk 


Slit 


slit 


slit, slitted 


Smite 


smote 


smitten 


Sow, to scatter 


sowed 


sown, R. 


Speak, oe- 


spoke, spake 


spoken 


Speed 


sped 


sped 


Spell 


spelt, R. 


spelt, R. 


Spend, mis- 


spent 


spent 


Spill 


spilt, R. 


spilt, R. 


Spin 


spun, span 


spun 


Spit, be- 


spit, spat 


spit 


Split 


split 


split 


Spread, be* 


spread 


spread 


Spring 


sprang, sprung 


sprung 


Stand, with-, &c. 


stood 


stood 


Steal 


stole 


stolen 


Stick 


stuck 


stuck 


Sting 


stung 


stung 


Stink 


stunk or stank 


stunk 


Stride, be- 


strode, strid 


stridden, strid 


Strike 


struck 


struck, stricken 


String 


strung 


strung 


Strive 


strove 


striven 


Strew,* be- 


strewed 


strewed, strewn 


* Strew andsheiv are now giving way to strorv and s) 


wio, as they are pronounced. 



102 



ENGLISH GBAMMAB. 



Present. 


Past. 


Past participle, 


Strow, oe- 


strowed 


strowed, strown 


Swear 


swore, sware 


sworn 


Sweat 


sweat, R. 


sweat, R. 


Sweep 


swept 


swept 


Swell 


swelled 


swollen, R. 


Swim 


swam or swum 


swum 


Swing 


swung 


swung 


Take, he-, &c. 


took 


taken 


Teach, mis- ve- 


taught 


taught 


Tear 


tore, tare 


torn 


Tell 


told 


told 


Think he- 


thought 


thought 


Thrive 


thrived, throve 


thriven, R. 


Throw" 


threw 


thrown 


Thrust 


thrust 


thrust 


Tread 


trod 


trodden, trod 


Wax 


waxed 


waxen, R. 


Wear 


wore 


worn 


Weave 


wove 


woven 


Weep 


wept 


wept 


Wet 


wet, K. 


wet, R. 


Whet 


whet, R. 


whet, R. 


Win 


won 


won 


Wind 


wound, R. 


wound 


Work 


wrought, R. 


wrought, R. 


Wring 


wrung, R. 


wrung 


Write 


wrote 


written 



DEFECTIVE VERBS. 
514e A Defective verb is one in which some of the 
parts are wanting. The following list comprises the most 
important. They are irregular, and chiefly auxiliary : — 



Present. 
Can 
May 
Must 
Ought 
Quoth 



Past. 
could 
might 



quoth 
Imperative — Beware. 



Present. 
Shall 
Will 
Wis 

Wit, ] 
Wot j" 



Past. 
should 
would 
wist 

wot 



ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — DEFECTIVE. 103 

515. Ought, originally the past tense of owe, is now used to sig- 
nify present duty; and must, to denote present obligation or neces- 
sity. When they refer to past time, a change is made in the infin- 
itive with which they are joined ; thus, Present — " These things ye 
ought to do; " Past — " These things ye ought to have done. 11 (436 
and 420.) 

516. Will, as an auxiliary, has wilt, and shall has shalt, in the 
second person singular. They are both without inflection in the 
third person singular. Will, as a principal verb, is regular. 

517. Wis, wist, which signifies, to hnow, to imagine, is now obso- 
lete. Wit, of the same meaning and origin, is now used only in 
the infinitive, in the phrase, " to wit, 11 that is, " namely." 

518. Beware (properly oe and ware, or wary) is now used only in 
the imperative, and sometimes after an auxiliary ; as, " Beicare of 
him " — " We should oeware. 11 

519. Quoth, to say, to speaJc, is used only in ludicrous language; 
its nominative always comes after the verb, and it has no variation 
for person, number, or tense; as, "Quoth he 11 — "Quoth they 11 &c. 

To defective verbs also properly belong — 

IMPERSONAL VERBS. 

520. Impersonal verbs are those which assert the ex- 
istence of some action or state, but refer it to no par- 
ticular subject. They are always in the third person 
singular, and in English are preceded by the pronoun 
it; as, " It rains" — " It hails" — " It behooves" &c. 

521. To this class of words belong the expressions, methinks, me- 
thought; meseems, meseemed; sometimes used for, "It seems to me 11 
— "It appears to me, 11 &c. 

522. The pronoun it preceding the impersonal verb as its subject, 
is the substitute of some unknown and general, or well-known 
cause, the action of which is expressed by the verb, but which can 
not, or need not, itself be named (246-5). 

EXERCISES. 

1. Conjugate the following irregular verbs (485 and 513), stating why 
they are called irregular ; also, which are transitive, and which are intran- 
sitive and why (320-1) : — 

Take, drive, creep, begin, abide, buy, bring, arise, catch, be- 
reave, am, burst, draw, drink, fly, flee, fall, get, give, go, feel, 



10J: ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

forsake, grow, have, hear, hide, keep, know, lose, pay, ride, ring, 
shake, run, seek, sell, see, sit, slay, slide, smite, speak, stand, 
tell, win, write, weave, tear. 

2. Take the first three transitive verbs of the preceding list ; conjugate 
and inflect them through all their moods and tenses in the active, and in 
the passive voice. 

EXERCISES ON THE PRECEDING PARTS OF SPEECH. 

1. In the following exercises, parse the several words ; viz., the 
nouns as directed (182)— articles as (194)— adjectives as (225)— pro- 
nouns as (253) — and verbs as (491 and 496), 

[The words in Italics are prepositions, and the nouns or pronouns 
following them are in the objective case.] 

The wind shakes the trees. — The apples fell to the ground. — 
God created all things. — The heavens are the work of his hands. 
— Alexander the Great conquered many countries. — The sun 
shines. — The fields are covered with grain. — The crops are 
excellent. — The rivers run into the sea. — A good man shows 
pity to the poor (201). — The fear of the Lord is the beginning 
of wisdom. — Remember thy Creator in the days of thy youth. 
— Time flies. — All things come to an end. — A bad man can 
not be happy. — Redeem time. — Do good to all men. — Truth is 
mighty. 

2. Form a list of ten nouns ; say something respecting each ; and parse 
the sentences so formed, as above. 



ADVERBS. 

523# An Adverb is a word joined to a verb, an adjec- 
tive, or another adverb, to modify it, or to denote some 
circumstance respecting it ; as, "Ann speaks distinctly ; 
she is remarkably diligent, and reads very correctly" 

524. An adverb is generally equivalent to a modifying phrase, or ad- 
junct (541)of the word to which it is joined. Thus, in the preceding ex- 
ample, w distinctly''' means, in a distinct manner; "remarkably" in a re- 
markable degree. So, "now" means, at this time; "then" at that time, &c. 
Hence, adverbs and adverbial adjuncts are often used indiscriminately 
in modifying verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. 



ETYMOLOGY — ADVERBS. 105 

525. On the same principle that an adverb modifies another adverb, it 
sometimes also modifies an adjunct, a phrase, or a sentence ; as, u I met 
your brother far from home" — " He will be here soon after mid-day" — 
" We shall go immediately after the mail arrives" 

526. A few adverbs are sometimes used as adjuncts of nouns and 
pronouns; as, U I only [that is, i", and no one else] am escaped alone 
to tell thee." — " The women also were present," that is, the women 
as well as the others — in addition to the others. 

The adverbs used in this way are such as the following : Chiefly, 
particularly, especially, entirely, altogether, solely, only, merely, 
partly, also, likewise, too, &c. 

527. An adjunct, without the word to which it belongs, is called 
an adverbial phrase; as, in short, in vain, in general, at most, at 
least, at all, on high, 

CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS. 

528. Adverbs have been divided into various classes, 
according to their signification. The chief of these are 
the following : — 

1. Adverbs of Manner; as, justly, bravely, softly, &c. 

2. Of Place ; as, here, there, where — hither, thence, &c. 

3. Of Time ; as, now, then, when, soon, often, never, &c. (929) 

4. Of Direction ; as, upward, downward, forward, &c. 

5. Of Affirmation ; as, yes, verily, certainly, doubtless, &c. 

6. Of Negation ; as, nay, no, not, nowise, &c. 

7. Of Interrogation ; as, how? why? when? where? whither? &c. 

8. Of Comparison; as, more^ most, less, as, so, thus, &c. 

9. Of Quantity; as, much, some, little, enough, sufficiently, &c. 
10. Of Order ; as, first, secondly, thirdly, next, &c. 

529. There, commonly used as an adverb of place, is often used as an 
introductory expletive to the verbs to be, to come, to appear, and some 
others, when the subject, in declaratory sentences, follows the verb ; as, 
" There is no doubt of the fact" — " There came to the beach a poor exile 
of Erin" — "There appears to be a mistake somewhere." Sometimes, 
when the subject goes before, it is placed between the subject and the 
verb ; as, " A mistake there is." In all such cases, there is a mere exple- 
tive. It adds nothing to the sense, but still it enables to vary the form 
of expression, and to soften the abruptness which would otherwise exist. 
This will appear by omitting it in any of the preceding examples. 

Then does not always refer to time, but it is used to indicate a certain 
circumstance, or a case supposed ; as, " If you will go, then, [that is, in 
that case] say so." 

Now is sometimes used without reference to time, merely to indicate 
the transition from one sentence to another ; as, " Not this man, but 
Barabbas. Norn Barabbas was a robber." 



106 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

530. The words, to-day, to-night, to-movrow, yesterday, used as adjuncts, 
may be called adverbs of time, or they may be regarded as nouns in the 
objective case, without the governing word (828), or as nouns in any case 
the construction may require. 

53 1. In comparisons, as and so, in the antecedent clause, are usually 
reckoned adverbs, because they modify an adjective or another adverb. 
The corresponding as and so, sometimes called conjunctions, are properly 
adverbs also, because resolvable into an adjunct (524); thus, " It is as 
high as heaven," that is, It is high in the degree in which heaven is high. 
— "So far as I know," that is, far to the extent to ichich I know. 

532. So is often used as the representative of a preceding word, phrase* 
or sentence, in order to prevent its repetition ; as, u To make men happy> 
and keep them so" — "France is highly cultivated — England more so"— 
* J James is in good health, John is not so " — " I believed that you would 
succeed, and I told you soy 

533. Therefore, wherefore, also, sometimes called conjunctions, are 
more properly adverbs, because used for the adjuncts, for this reason, for 
which reason, in addition (524). 

CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS. 

534. A Conjunctive Adverb is one that stands for two adjuncts, 
one of which contains a relative pronoun, and the other, its antece- 
dent ; thus, " I will see you when you come.' 7 Here, when is equiv- 
alent to, at the time at which; the first part, "at the time" modifies 
"will see" and the second, " at which" modifies " come," Again, 
" I know not how it is done." Here how is equivalent to the manner 
in which. The first part, "the manner" is the object of "Jcnow" 
and the second "in which," is the adjunct of " is done" In a simi- 
lar way, where may be resolved into, the place in which ; whither •, 
into, the place to which, &c. 

These adverbs perform a double office ; they modify two different 
words, and connect the clauses to which they belong. They are, when, 
where, while, whither, whence. They are also used interrogatively, both 
directly and indirectly. Thus used, they are not conjunctive ; as, " Wlien 
[that is, at what time] will you come ? "—"Thou knowest not whence 
[from what place] it cometh, and whither [to what place] it goeth." 

FORMATION AND DERIVATION OF ADVERBS. 

535. Adverbs are either primitive, or derivative. 

1. A few adverbs are primitive, or derived from no other words in the 
language, as, yes, no, not, here, there, now, then, &c. 




from 



adjectives in ly, the adjunct being used in preference. Thus we 
1 not say, " He acted manlily," but " in a manly manner, or like 



ETYMOLOGY — ADVERBS. 107 

3. Many compound adverbs are formed by combining words together, 
so as of two or more words forming an adjunct, to make one compound 
term; as, indeed, hereby, thereby, wherewith, therefore, wheresoever, never- 
theless, &c. 

4. Some nouns and other words are converted into adverbs by prefix- 
ing a, signifying, at, in, on, &c; as, abed, ashore, aloft, ahead, astern, 
aground, apart, adrift, afresh, alike, asleep, &c. (190). 

5. Many words are used sometimes as adverbs, and sometimes as other 
parts of speech ; thus — 

Much is used — 1. As an adverb ; as, "He is much better." 

2. As an adjective ; as, " In much wisdom is much 

grief." 

3. As a noun ; as, " Where much is given, much is 

required." 
Yesterday is used — -1. As an adverb ; as, "He came yesterday' 1 '' (530). 
2. As a noun ; as, " Yesterday is past." 
But is used — 1. As an adverb ; as, u Give but one kind word." 

2. As a preposition (538) ; as, "None butthe brave." 

3. As a conjunction (561) ; as, " He is poor, but 

honest." 
What isused — 1. As an interrogative ; as, u What is that?" 

2. As a relative ; as, u We speak what we know." 

3. As an adverb ; as, " What [partly] with one thing, 

and what [partly] with another, we had enough 
to do." 

6. Circumstances of time, place, manner, &c, are often expressed by 
two or more words constituting an adverbial phrase (527 and 530) ; as, 
at length, not at all, by no means, in vain, in order, long ago, by-and-by, 
all over, to and fro, forever, &c. Such phrases may be taken together as 
one word, and parsed as an adverb, or separately, as other words, where 
it can be done, supplying the ellipsis when necessary. 

COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 

536. Adverbs of quality, derived from adjectives, and 
a few others, admit of comparison like adjectives ; as, 
nobly, more nobly, most nobly; soon, sooner, soonest. 

The following are compared irregularly ; as — 
Pos. Oomp. Sup. Pos. Comp. Sup. 

Badly, or ill, worse, worst. Much, more, most. 

Far, farther farthest. Well, better, best. 

Little, less, least. 

PARSING. 

537, An adverb is parsed by stating what part of 
speech— the class to which it belongs— the word which 



108 ENGLISH GRAMMAR* 

it modifies — its derivation and comparison, if derived 
and compared. Thus : — 

u He speaks fluently." — Fluently, an adverb of manner, and 
modifies "speaks; " derived from fluent, and compared more fluent- 
ly, most fluently. 

PRELIMINARY ORAL EXERCISE. 

When we say, " John runs rapidly," what part of speech is John ? 
what is runs (314) ? What is the use of the word rapidly in that sen- 
tence? What part of speech are those words which express the manner 
of doing a thing (528-1) ? What part of speech, then, is rapidly? Why ? 
Can you think of any other words that might be used to express the 
manner in which "John runs " I — "Swiftly, slowly, well, ill." What 
part of speech are these words ? Suppose you say, "John ran yesterday" 
— "John runs now" — "John will run soon" — what is the use of the 
words yesterday, now, soon ? What are words called which express a cir- 
cumstance of time (528-3)? Then what part of speech are yesterday, 
now, soon? Why? 

What other words besides the verb do adverbs modify (523)? When 
we say, " John is a very good boy," what word modifies good? What 
part of speech is good? Why? Then what part of speech is very? 
Why? 

If I say, "John reads exceedingly well," what word modifies reads? 
Ans. Well. Then what part of speech is well ? Why ? What word 
tells us how well he reads ? What word does exceedingly modify ? Then 
what part of speech is it ? Why ? 

EXERCISES. 

1. Tell to what class the following adverbs belong — whether primitive 
or derivative — if not primitive, how they are formed — compare, if com- 
pared : — 

Justly, wisely, happily, beautifully, fashionably, sufficiently, 
thirdly, nearly, almost, perfectly. 

Here, there, anywhere, hither, thither, yes, no, thence, some- 
where — now, then, to-day, hereafter. 

2. Form sentences, each of which will contain one of the preceding 
adverbs. Parse as directed (537). 

EXERCISES ON ADVERBS, IRREGULAR VERBS, ETC. 

Parse the following exercises as in " General exercises," p. 103, and 
(537).— 

Peter wept bitterly. — He is here now. — She went away yes- 
terday. — They came to-day. — They will perhaps buy some to- 
morrow. — Ye shall know hereafter. — She sang sweetly. — Great 
men are not always wise. — Mary rose up hastily. — They that 



ETYMOLOGY — PREPOSITIONS. 109 

have enough may soundly sleep. — Cain wickedly slew his 
brother. — 1 saw him long ago. — He is a very good man.— Soon- 
er or later all must die. — You read too little. — They talk too 
much. — James acted wisely.— How many lines can you repeat? 
— You ran hastily. — He speaks fluently. — Then were they glad. 
— He fell fast asleep. — She could not hold her head still. — The 
ship was driven ashore. — No, indeed. — They are all alike. — Let 
him that is athirst drink freely.— The oftener you read with 
attention, the more you will improve. — Will you be at home 
when I come ?— James will sit here, while you stand there. — 
As for this man, we know not whence he is. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

538. A Preposition is a word which shows the rela- 
tion between a noun or pronoun following it, and some 
other word in the sentence ; as, "The love of money:' 
— " Come to me" 

539. Of the words related, that before the preposition is called the 
antecedent term of the relation, and that which follows it is called 
the subsequent term. This, being governed by the preposition, is 
also called its regimen, as in the examples above. 

540. Instead of a noun or pronoun, a preposition may be followed 
by an infinitive mood, or clause of a sentence, used as a substantive; 
as, " We are about to depart" — "Honored for having done his duty." 
— "The crime of being a young man." 

541. The preposition and its regimen united are called the adjunct of 
the antecedent term; and the antecedent term, as related to its adjunct, 
may be called the principal. It is usually a noun, or pronoun, an adjec- 
tive, a verb, or an adverb; as, " The waters of Jordan."— "#e with the 
book in his hand."— " It is good for me."— " Pray for us."— " He acts 
consistently with his principles." 

542. The same word not unfrequently has several adjuncts ; as, "He 
went from Boston, by railroad, to New York, in eight hours." Also the 
noun or pronoun in the adjunct, may be limited by one or more adjuncts 
—the whole forming a compound adjunct ; as, u It is consistent with the 
character of a man of honor." Here, "of honor " is the adjunct of man , 
"of a man of honor" is a compound adjunct of character ; and the whole, 
"with the character of a man of honor'," is a compound adjunct of con* 
sistent. 

543. The preposition is so called because it is usually placed before its 
regimen, as in the above examples. Sometimes, however, the sentence 
may be so inverted that the preposition follows its regimen immediately, 
or at some distance ; as, " Where echo walks the steep hills among." — 
" Wltom did he speak to?" 



110 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



544. In the natural order of a sentence, the adjunct follows its princi- 
pal ; as, " He withdrew after sapper." It is often convenient, however, 
to arrange the adjunct first ; as, " After supper, he withdrew with his 
friend who had called for him." Here the same sense can not be given 
by placing the adjunct, "after supper," anywhere else in the sentence. 





545. LIST 


OF PREPOSITIONS. 






To be committed accurately to memory 




About 


Behind 


From 


Through 


Above 


Beneath 


In 


Throughout 


Across 


Beside ) 
Besides ) 


Into 


Till 


After 


Notwithstanding 


■ To 


Against 


Between 


Of 


Touching 


Along 


Betwixt 


Off 


Toward ) 


Amid \ 
Amidst ) 


Beyond 


On 


Towards j 


But 


Over 


Under 


Among > 
Amongst y 


By 


Out of 


Underneath 


Concerning 


Past 


Until 


Around 


Down 


Pending 


Unto 


At 


During 


Regarding 


Up 


Athwart 


Ere 


Respecting 


Upon 


Bating 


Except 


Round 


With 


Before 


Excepting 


Save 


Within 


Below 


For 


Since 


Without 



546. Concerning, excepting, regarding, respecting, and touching, were 
originally present participles active, of transitive verbs, and as such re- 
quired an objective case after them (801). They may frequently be so 
construed still. During may be regarded as originally the present par- 
ticiple active, of an intransitive verb, having the noun or pronoun in the 
nominative case absolute (769) ; thus, " During life," means life during, 
or while life endures. Notwithstanding, a compound of not, and the 
present participle withstanding, may be explained the same way. Still, 
when used as a preposition, the word following must be regarded as in 
the objective case (818). 

547. Except and save were originally imperatives. Out of may be 
regarded either as two words — an adverb and preposition — or as one 
word, forming a sort of compound preposition. Of this character are 
the following : From between, from beyond, from within, from without, 
over against, and the like, Off is, for the most part, an adverb, and means 
at a distance ; as, " Far off" With a noun or pronoun following, it is a 
preposition, and means not on, from, &c. ; as, "Off the table." 

548. The word a in the sense of at, in, on, to, of, &c, has the force of 
a preposition in such expressions as a reading, a running, a going, a 
hunting, &c. (190), and may be parsed as such. The same word is used 
as a prefix in such words as aboard, ashore, asleep, abed, afloat, &c. (190). 



ETYMOLOG Y — PREPOSITIONS. Ill 

549. To, the sign of the infinitive mood, should not be regarded as a 
preposition, but as a sort of verbal prefix belonging to the form of the 
verb in that part. 

550. When a preposition has not an object, it becomes an adverb ; as> 
11 He rides about." But in such phrases as cast up, hold out, fall on, &c, 
up, out, on, should be considered as parts of the verbs to which they are 
joined, rather than as prepositions or adverbs. 

551. Several words in the preceding list are used sometimes as prepo- 
sitions and sometimes as other parts of speech ; as, thus, till, until, after, 
before,' kc, are frequently adverbs. But and save, followed by the ob- 
jective case, are used as prepositions ; followed by a nominative, they 
are conjunctions. For and since are also used as conjunctions. 

552. All words used as prepositions are followed by an objective 
case, and may by this be distinguished from other words. 

PARSING. 

553. A preposition is parsed by stating what part of 
speech, and between what words it shows the relation ; 
thus, " The waters of Jordan." Of is a preposition, 
and shows the^relation between Jordan and waters. 

Here Jordan is the regimen of the preposition of; of Jordan is the 
adjunct of waters ; and waters is the principal to which the adjunct 
belongs 

554. PRELIMINARY ORAL EXERCISE. 

When I say, *' The book is on the table," what word shows the rela- 
tion of book to the table ? What part of speech are words that show the 
relation between nouns or pronouns, and other words in the sentence ? 
Then what part of speech is on '? Could the book be in any other rela- 
tion to the table than on it ? It might be off the table, above the table, 
under the table, beside the table, &c. Then what part of speech are off, 
above, under, beside ? Why ? When we say, " They live in the country," 
what word shows the relation between country and live? Then what 
part of speech is in ? 

EXERCISES. 

In the following sentences, point out the preposition, and the' words 
between which it shows the relation. Name the adjunct and principal. 
In what sentences has the principal more than one adjunct ? — in what, a 
compound adjunct? 

He went from Boston. — He went to Washington. — He went 
from Boston to Washington. — We reside in the country. — All 
rivers flow into the sea. — He gave his book to me. — He gave 
[to] me his book. — Flowers bloom in summer. — In summer 
flowers bloom. — He gave part of his dinner to a poor man in 
the street. — He was traveling toward Rome when we met him 



112 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

at Milan, without a single attendant. — Be kind one to another. — 
The love of money is the root of all evil. — Do good to all men. 
■ — Be not overcome of evil, but overcome evil with good. — For 
his gallant conduct in rescuing so many from a watery grave, 
he was highly honored. 

2. In the preceding exercises, parse each word in order as directed, p. 
103, and Nos. 53*7 and 553. 



INTERJECTIONS. 

555. An Interjection is a word used in exclamations, 
to express an emotion of the mind ; as, " Oh ! what a 
fall was there ! " 

556. The Interjection is so called, because it is, as it were, thrown in 
among the words of a sentence, without any grammatical connection with 
them. Sometimes it stands at the beginning of a sentence, sometimes in 
the middle, and sometimes it stands alone, as if the emotion were too 
strong to admit of other words being spoken. 

A LIST OF INTERJECTIONS. 

557. The following is a list of the interjections most commonly 
used. They express various kinds of emotions, but in so vague and 
indefinite a way, as not to admit of accurate classification : — 

Ah ! alas ! ! oh ! ha ! fudge ! tush ! pshaw ! poh ! pugh ! fie ! 
avaunt ! ho ! holla ! aha ! hurrah ! huzza ! bravo ! hist ! hush ! 
heigho ! heyday 1 hail ! lo ! welcome ! halloo ! adieu ! &c. 

558. Also some words belonging to other parts of speech, when uttered 
in an unconnected and forcible manner, to express emotion, are called 
interjections; as, nonsense! strange! wonderful! shocking! what! be- 
hold! off! away! hark! come! well done! welcome! &c. 

559. is used to express wishing or exclamation, and should be pre- 
fixed only to a noun or pronoun, in a direct address ; as, "0 Virtue ! how 
amiable thou art ! " Oh is used detached from the word, with a point of 
exclamation after it, or after the next word. It implies an emotion of 
pain, sorrow, or surprise ; as, "Oh! what a sight is here ! " 

PARSING. 

560. An interjection is parsed by stating the part of 
speech, why, and the emotion expressed ; as, "Oh ! 
what a sight is here ! " 

Oh — an interjection, because used as an exclamation, and ex- 
presses an emotion of pain. 



ETYMOLOGY — CONJUNCTIONS. 113 

CONJUNCTIONS. 
561. A conjunction is a word which connects words, 
phrases, or sentences ; as, "He and I must go, to you 
may stay." — " Of him, and through him, and to him, 
are all things." 

562, Here, and connects the words He and /, and but connects the 
sentences, u He and 1 must go" and "you may stay" 

563. Conjunctions sometimes begin sentences, even after a full period, 
to show a connection between sentences in the general tenor of discourse. 
See, as examples, the first chapter of Genesis. 

564. Conjunctions are divided into two classes : Copu- 
lative and Disjunctive. 

565. Copulative conjunctions connect things that are to be consid- 
ered together. They are, and, both, as, because, for, if, since, that. 

566. And is the principal copulative, and connects what follows 
as an addition to that which precedes. The others connect what 
follows as a condition, supposition, cause, motive, &c. 

567. Both is an antecedent conjunction, related to and. When 
used, it precedes the first of the words or sentences connected by 
and, in order to make the connection more emphatic. 

568. Disjunctive conjunctions connect things that are to be con- 
sidered separately. The leading disjunctives are, or, nor, either , 
neither, than, though, although, yet, but, except, whether, lest, unless, 
notwithstanding, save, provided, whereas. 

569. Or and nor are the principal disjunctives. Or connects 
words and sentences in such a way as to show that what follows is 
not added to, but is the alternative of, that which precedes. The 
other disjunctives connect what follows as a concession or doubt, or 
as something opposed to what goes before. 

570. Either and neither are antecedent conjunctions, related to or 
and nor respectively. When used, they precede the first of the 
words or sentences connected by or or nor, to render them more 
emphatic. Sometimes they are transposed to the end of the sen- 
tence so as to give emphasis to the latter member ; as, " Was that 
your business, or mine either f " That was not my business, nor 
yours neither ^neither my business nor yours. 

571. Titer ef ore and loherefore, sometimes called conjunctions, are more 
properly adverbs (533). 

PARSING. 

572, A conjunction is parsed by stating the part of 



114 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



speech, its class, and the words or sentences which it 
connects ; as, "He and I must go ; but you may stay." 

And— a, copulative conjunction, and connects the words He and 7. 

But — a disjunctive conjunction, and connects the sentences, u He 
and I must go," and "you may stay." 

573. PRELIMINARY ORAL EXERCISE. 

When we say, "John and James study," what word connects John and 
James ? What class of words connect words or sentences ? What 
part of speech is and? In the sentence, "John reads and writes," what 
does and connect ? What does and connect in the following phrases, "A 
red and white rose " — U A red rose and a white rose " — " Well and truly 
said"? What conjunction connects the following sentences, "They are 
happy, because they are good"? Here the following facts may be no- 
ticed (946, &c.) :— 

1. When two nouns or pronouns are connected, they are in the same 

case, and in the same construction. 

2. When two verbs are connected, they have the same subject ; as, 

" James reads and writes." 

3. When two adjectives are connected, they qualify the same noun or 

pronoun. 

4. When two adverbs are connected, they modify the same word. 

5. When conjunctions connect sentences, they do not connect individ- 

ual words in the sentence. Thus, " They are happy, because they 
are good," the conjunction does not connect they with they, nor 
are with are, nor happy with good; but, " They are happy," with 
"they are good." So also when they connect phrases: "He 
spoke to James, and to me " — "Of him, and through him, and to 
him, are all things." 

EXERCISES ON CONJUNCTIONS. 

1. In the following sentences, point out the conjunctions, and state 
what words, or sentences, or phrases, they connect. Sometimes the or- 
der is so inverted, that the conjunctive clause stands first. 

2. Parse the words in their order. 

Time and tide wait for no man. — The evening and the morn- 
ing were the first day. — The memory of the just is blessed, but 
the name of the wicked shall rot. — If thou faint in the day of 
adversity, thy strength is small. — Two and two make four. — 
George or John will go.— They will succeed because they are 
industrious. — Because they are industrious they will succeed. — 
Of him, and through him, and to him, are all things. — Though 
he slay me, yet will I trust in him. — Of making many books 
there is no end, and much study is a weariness to the flesh.— 
My son, if sinners entice thee, consent thou not. 



ETYMOLOGY — PARSING. 115 

PARSING. 

574. Parsing is the resolving of a sentence into its 
elements or parts of speech. 

575. Words may be parsed in two ways : Etymologi- 
cally (576), and Syntactically (983). 

1. Etymological parsing consists in stating the parts 
of speech to which each word in a sentence belongs, its 
uses and accidents, its inflection, and changes, and deri- 
vation, if derived. 

2. Syntactical parsing adds to the above a statement 
of the relation in which the words stand to each other, 
and the rules according to which they are combined in 
phrases and sentences. 

3. In the natural order, Etymological parsing should precede Analysis, 
because we can not analyze a sentence before we have learned the char- 
acter of the words it contains ; and Analysis should precede Syntactical 
parsing, because, till we know the parts and elements of a sentence, we 
can not understand their relations, nor intelligently combine them into 
one consistent whole. Still, these are all so intimately connected and 
blended together, that to do any one of them in the best manner, a 
knowledge of all is necessary. As Etymological parsing has to do only 
with the accidents of words, it matters not whether the words parsed 
are unconnected, or in sentences. But in both Analysis and Syntactical 
parsing, not only must the words constitute a sentence, but that also 
must be both intelligible and understood; for no one can either analyze 
or parse syntactically that which he does not understand. 

ETYMOLOGICAL PARSING, 

576. Words are parsed etymologically in the manner 
directed under each part of speech, viz. : Nouns (182) 
—articles (194)— adjectives (225)— pronouns of differ- 
ent kinds, viz., personal (253), relative (278), interrog- 
ative (286), adjective (313)— verbs (491 and 496)— 
adverbs (537)— prepositions (553)— interjections (560) 
— conjunctions (572). 

577. That a pupil should be expert and accurate in this exercisers of 
much importance, in order to pursue with pleasure and success the study of 
Syntax, and to a correct understanding of the forms and usages of speech 
in the English language. „ 



116 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

578, A sentence to be parsed must be intelligible, and it is necessary 
for the pupil, in the first place, to understand it. When he understands 
a sentence, and also the definition of the different parts of speech given 
in the grammar, he will not find much difficulty in ascertaining to which 
of them each word belongs; that is, which of the words are "names of 
things" or nouns; which "qualify the names of things," or, "affirm 
anything concerning them," that is to say, which words are adjectives, 
and which are verbs. This method will exercise the discriminating pow- 
ers of the pupil better, engage his attention much more, and, on trial, be 
found much more easy and certain, than that of consulting his dictionary 
on every occasion — a plan always laborious, often unsatisfactory, and 
which, instead of leading him to exercise his own powers, and depend 
on his own resources, will lead him to habits of slavish dependence on 
the authority of others. 

579, The following general principles should be remembered, and 
steadily kept in view, in parsing every sentence, viz. : — 

1. Every adjective qualifies or limits a noun or pronoun, expressed 
or understood (195, and 196). 

2. The subject of a verb, that is, the person or thing spoken of, is 
always in<the nominative (except when the verb is in the infinitive), 
and is said to be the nominative to the verb (315 and 762). 

3. Every verb in the indicative, potential, subjunctive, or imper- 
ative, has a nominative or subject, expressed or understood (661, 4). 

4. Every verb in the active voice used transitively, and every 
preposition, is followed by a noun or pronoun in the objective case, 
or by an infinitive mood or a clause of a sentence equivalent to it ; 
and every objective case, except as in (828), is governed by an active 
transitive verb, or preposition (661, 6). 

5. The infinitive mood, for the most part, depends on, or is gov- 
erned by, a verb or adjective (865). 

580. MODEL OF ETYMOLOGICAL PARSING. 
u The minutest plant or animal, if [it is] attentively examined, 
affords a thousand wonders, and obliges us to admire and adore the 
Omnipotent Hand by which it was created."* 



*In parsing nouns, pronouns, and verbs, it is quite unnecessary to repeat the words 
gender, number, case, tense, mood, voice. Thus, " Father is a noun, masculine gender, in 
the nominative case, singular number." It is enough, and is both neater and briefer, to 
say, kl a noun masculine, in the nominative singular " So with the verb : instead of say- 
ing, ^Loves is a verb." &c , "in the present tense, indicative mood, active voice, third 
person, singular number," it is sufficientand better to sav, " In the present indicative, 
active, third person singular." The conjugation of regular verbs also (485), without any 
detriment, may be omitted, the form of the principal parts being sufficiently ascertained 
when they are said to be regular (491, note). All this saves much time, and it is just as 
explicit as the full form often used. For the same reason, and as formerly mentioned 
(180), the words proper and common, as applied to nouns, may be omitted ; because, 
whether a noun is proper or common, makes no difference in the construction of a sentence; 
no use is made of it, nothing depends on it. In like manner, the designation of person, 
as applied to nouns, may be omitted, except when they are of the first or second, if it be 



ETYMOLOG Y P ARSING. 117 

Previous to parsing this sentence, the pupil may be led to understand 
it better, and perceive its parts more distinctly, by attending to such 
questions as the following : What is spoken of in this sentence ? How 
are plant and animal qualified ? What is said of them thus qualified ? 
How is wonders limited ? What else is said of plant and animal ? Whom 
do they oblige ? What do they oblige us to do ? How is hand qualified ? 
What hand? &c. 

581. These words may be parsed fully, thus : — 

TJie Definite article, showing that plant and animal are de- 
fined or limited. 
minutest. . . An Adjective, because it qualifies a noun, plant, &c. 
compared by er and est, or by prefixing more and mo$L 
superlative degree — expresses the greatest degree of minute- 
ness compared with others. 

plant A noun — the name of an object. 

neuter — is without sex. 

nominative, because the subject of affords and obliges. 

singular — it denotes but one ; plural, plants. 

or. A disjunctive conjunction — connects plant and animal as 

alternates. 
animal. ... A noun — the name of an object. 

neuter — considered without sex (125). 

nominative singular, for reasons above : — (see plant). 

if A conjunction — connects the sentence, u [it is] attentively 

examined,'''' as a condition, to the sentence, " affords," kc. 

it A pronoun — stands instead of a noun, plant or animal. 

neuter — it denotes neither male nor female. 
personal — its form indicates its person. 
third person — it is spoken of. 
singular — it denotes but one. 
is examined A verb — expresses an act. 

transitive— expresses an act done to plant, &c, represented 

by it. 
regular — its past tense and past participle end in ed. 
present — expresses a present act. 

indicative — used subjunctively, and expresses a condition. 
passive — represents the subject as acted upon. 
third person — affirms of its subject spoken of. 
singular — affirms of but one. 
attentively. . An adverb — modifies examined; formed from the adjective 
attentive by adding ly ; compared by prefixing more and 
most. 

affords A verb — it expresses an act of its subject, plant or animal. 

transitive — expresses what the subject does to its object 
wonders. 

understood that they are always of the third person when not otherwise mentioned. 
This plan is here adopted and recommended. Still, it is expected that every teacher will 
adopt that method which he thinks best. In parsing, economy of time, without loss of 
advantage, is an object of much importance 



118 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

regular — its past tense and past participle end in ed. 

present — expresses a present act. 

indicative— declares simply. 

active — represents its subject as acting. 

third person — affirms of its subject spoken of. 

singular — affirms of but one. 

a Indefinite article — showing that "thousand wonders" is put 

indefinitely as one whole, that is, one thousand. 

thousand, . . An adjective — qualifies wonders. 

numeral — denotes number. 

cardinal — denotes how many ; not compared. 
wonders. ... A noun — the name of an object. 

neuter — without sex. 

objective — the object of affords. 

plural — denotes more than one. 

and. » Copulative conjunction — connects the succeeding sentence 

as an addition to the preceding. 

obliges Same as affords. 

us A personal pronoun — the substitute of the speaker and 

others, and consequently first person. 
masculine or feminine — may denote males or females. 
objective — the object of obliges, 
plural — denotes more than one. 
to admire. . A verb — expresses an act. 

transitive — has an object, hand. 

regular — its past tense and past participle end in ed. 

present — expresses an act present at the time referred to in 

the preceding verb, obliges, 
infinitive — without limitation of person or number. 
active — represents the subject referred to (395) as acting. It 
is the attribute of us, or has us for its subject. 

and Copulative conjunction — connects to adore as an addition 

to to admire. 

adore Same as admire, without the sign (880). 

that Demonstrative adjective pronoun — used to point out def- 
initely the word hand. 

Omnipotent An adjective — qualifies hand; not compared because it does 
not admit of increase. 

hand A noun — same as wonders, except— 

singular — denotes one, and is the object of admire and adore. 

by A preposition — shows the relation between was created and 

which. 

which Relative pronoun — neuter, in the objective singular, refers 

to hand as its antecedent, and is governed by by. 
singular — means but one. 

it .,,....< A personal pronoun — stands for plant or animal, same as 
before. 

was created A verb — expresses an act done by 7ta??J,represented by which. 



ETYMOLOGY — PARSING. 119 

transitive — expresses an act done by one person or thing to 

another. 
regular — its past tense and past participle end in ed, 
past — expresses an act now past. 
indicative — declares simply. 
passive — represents its subject as acted upon. 
third person — its subject is spoken of. 
singular — affirms of one. 

ABBREVIATED MODEL. 

582* The length of time necessary to parse even a few words in 
this way, renders it impracticable to do it often, though occasionally 
it may be profitable. The following brief method will answer e^ery 
purpose : — 
The ...... Definite article, belonging to plant and animal, and showing 

them to be limited. 
minutest*.. Adjective, superlative degree, qualifying plant, &c. 

plant A noun, neuter, in the nominative singular, subject of affords. 

or A disjunctive conjunction, connecting plant and animal as 

alternates. 
animal. ... A noun, neuter, in the nominative singular, subject of affords. 

if A conjunction, connecting the sentences. 

it Third personal pronoun, neuter, in the nominative singular, 

standing for plant or animal, and subject of is examined. 

is examined A verb transitive, regular, in the present indicative, passive, 
expressing what is done to its subject it, used for plant or 
animal. 

attentively. An adverb, modifying examined; compared by more and 
most. 

affords .... A verb transitive, regular, in the present indicative, active, 
third person singular, and affirms of plant or animal. 

a. , Indefinite article, showing thousand wonders to be indefinite. 

thousand . . A numeral adjective, used to qualify wonders. 

wonders ... A noun, neuter, in the objective plural, object of affords. 

and A copulative conjunction; connects the predicates affords, 

&c, and obliges. 

obliges .... A verb transitive, regular, in the present indicative active, 
third person singular, and affirms of plant or animal. 

us First personal pronoun, masculine or feminine, in the objec- 
tive plural, object of obliges, and subject of to admire, &c. 

to admire.. A verb transitive, regular, in the present infinitive, active, 
attribute of us, or object of obliges. 

and A copulative conjunction : connects to admire and to adore. 

to adore ... A verb transitive, regular, in the present infinitive, active, 
attribute of us, or object of obliges. 



120 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

that Demonstrative adjective pronoun, definitely pointing out hand. 

Omnipotent An adjective, qualifying hand ; not compared. 

hand A noun, neuter, in the objective singular, object of adore. 

by A preposition, which shows the relation between was created 

and which. 

which A relative pronoun, related to hand as its antecedent, objec- 
tive, and governed by by. 

it Third personal pronoun, same as before ; subject of was 

created, 
was created A verb transitive, regular, in the past indicative, passive, 

third person singular, and affirms of it. 



583. EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

1. Two or more adjectives in succession, either with or without a conjunc- 
tion, qualify the same word ; as, 

1. A wise and faithful servant will always study his master's 
interest. 2. A dismal, dense, and portentous cloud overhangs the 
city. 3. A steady, sweet, and cheerful temper affords great delight 
to its possessor. 4. He has bought a fine new coat. 

2. When an adjective precedes two nouns, it generally qualifies them both; 
as, 

1. They waited for a fit time and place. 2. I am delighted with 
the sight of green woods and fields. 3. He displayed great pru- 
dence and moderation. 4. He was a man of great wisdom and 
moderation. 

3 WJien an adjective comes after a verb intransitive, it generally quali- 
fies the nominative of that verb ; as, 

1. John is wise. 2. They were temperate. 3. The sky is very 

clear. 4. These rivers are deep and rapid. 5. The apples will 

soon be ripe. 6. We have been attentive to our lessons. 7. These 

mountains are very high. 

4. Whatever words the verb " to be" serves to unite, referring to the same 
thing, must be of the same case; as, 

1. Alexander is a student. 2. Mary is a beautiful painter. 3. • 
Hope is the balm of life. 4. Content is a great blessing, envy a 
great curse. 5. Knowledge is power. 6. His meat was locusts and 
wild honey. 7. He was the life of the company. 

Note. — It is necessary to the application of this rule, that the words 
connected refer to the same thing. This connection is often made by 
other words than the verb " to be " (605 or 191). 

5. Nouns and pronouns, placed together for the sake of emphasis, or ex- 
planation, and denoting the same object, are said to be in apposition, and 
always agree in case ; as, 



ETYMOLOG Y — P A It S I N G . 121 

1. Alexander the coppersmith, was not a friend to the Apostle 
Paid. 2. Hope, the balm of life, is our greatest friend. 3. Thom- 
son, the author of the seasons, is a delightful poet. 4. Temperance, 
the best preserver of health, should be the study of all men. 

Note. — In parsing such sentences as those above, a relative and a verb 
may be inserted between the words in apposition. Myself, thyself, him- 
self, &c, often stand at a considerable distance from the words with 
which they agree ; as, 

5. Thomas despatched the letter himself 6. They gathered the 
flowers in the garden themselves. 7. Ann saw the transaction her- 
self, and could not be mistaken. 

6. Myself, thyself, himself, <£<r., often form the objectives after active- 
transitive verbs, of which the words they represent are the subjects or nomin- 
atives. They are in such cases generally called Reflexive pronouns (249) ; 
as, 

1. I hurt myself. 2. He wronged himself, to oblige us. 3. They 

will support themselves by their industry. 4. She endeavored to 

show herself off to advantage. 5. We must confine ourselves more 

to our studies. 6. They hurt themselves by their great anxiety. 

1. Adjectives taken as nouns, and used in reference to persons, are gen- 
erally of the plural number (201) ; as, 

1. The valiant never taste of death but once. 2. The virtuous are 
generally the most happy. 3. The diligent make most improvement. 
4. The sincere are always esteemed. 5. The inquisitive are gener- 
ally talkative. 6. The dissipated are much to be pitied. 

8. Nouns and pronouns, taken in the same connection, must be of the 
same case ; as, 

1. The master taught him and me to write. 2. He and she were 
schoolfellows. 3. My brother and he are tolerable grammarians. 
4. He gave the book to John and Thomas. 5. I lent my knife and 
pencil to one of the scholars. 

9. A relative generally precedes the verb thai governs it ; as, 

1. He is a friend whom I greatly respect. 2. They whom luxury 
has corrupted, can not relish the simple pleasures of life. 3. The 
books which I bought yesterday, I have not yet received. 4. The 
trees which he planted in the spring have all died. 

10. When both a relative and its antecedent have each a verb belonging 
to it, the relative is commonly the nominative to the first verb, and the ante- 
cedent to the second; as, 

1. He icho acts wisely deserves praise. 2. He who is a stranger 

to industry may possess, but he cannot enjoy. 3. They who are 

born in high stations are not always the most happy. 4. The man 

who is faithfully attached to religion may be relied on with confidence. 

6 



122 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1 1. The relative what in itself represents but one case — the nominative 
or objective ; but it implies a reference to a general antecedent omitted, to 
which belongs the other case required by the construction. When this an- 
tecedent is expressed, which inust be used instead of what (266). 

1. This is precisely what was necessary. 2. What can not be 
prevented must be endured. 3. We must not delay till to-morrow 
what ought to be doner to-day. 4. Choose what is most tit ; custom 
will make it the most agreeable. 5. Foolish men are more apt to 
consider what they have lost, than what they possess. 6. What he 
gained by diligence, he squandered by extravagance. 

12. Whoever and whosoever are equivalent to a simple relative, and a 
general or indefinite antecedent, and in parsing may be so resolved ; thus, 
whoeverr^any one who. The same is the case with whatever and whatso- 
ever ; whatever == everything which ; as, 

1. Whoever told such a story, must ham been misinformed. 2. 

Whoever is not content in poverty, would not be perfectly happy 

in the midst of plenty. 3. Whoever passes his time in idleness, can 

make but little improvement. 4. Whatever gives pain to others, 

deserves not the name of pleasure. 5. Whatever is worth doing at 

all is worth doing well. 

Note. — Whatever is most frequently used, as what sometimes is (27*7), 
simply to qualify a noun ; as, 

6. Aspire at perfection, in whatever state of life you may be placed. 
7. I forget what words he uttered. 8. By what means shall we ob- 
tain wisdom ? 9. By whatever arts we may attract attention, we 
can secure esteem only by amiable dispositions. 

13. Though participles never directly declare, yet they always imply 
something either done or doing ; and are used in reference to some noun or 
pronoun; as, 

1. Admired and applauded, he became vain. 2. Having finished 
our lessons, we went to play. 3. Proceeding on his journey, he was 
seized with a dangerous malady. 4. Being engaged at the time of 
my call, he had not a moment to spend with me. 

14. The past participle of a few intransitive verbs is sometimes joined 
to the verb " to 6e," which gives such verbs a passive appearance (374) ; as, 

1. I am come, in compliance with your desire. 2. If such max- 
ims and practices prevail, what is become of decency and virtue ? 
3. The old house is fallen down. 4. John is gone to London. 

15. Intransitive verbs are often followed by prepositions, making what 
are soinetiines called compound transitive verbs. The verb and preposition 
may, in such cases, be parsed either together or separately in the active 
voice. In the passive voice, they must be parsed together ; as, 



ETYMOLOGY — PARSING. 123 

1. He laughed at such folly. 2. They smiled upon us in such a 
way as to inspire courage. 3. He struck at his friend with great 
1 violence. 4. He was much laughed at for such conduct. 

16. A noun or pronoun is of ten used with a participle, without being 
connected in grammatical construction witliany other words of the sentence. 
It is then called the nominative absolute, or independent ; as, 

1. The father being dead, the whole estate came into the hands 
of the eldest son. 2. He destroyed, or won to what may work his 
utter loss, all this will soon follow. 3. Whose gray top shall trem- 
ble, he descending. 

17. To, the sign of the infinitive, is omitted after the verbs bid, dare, 
need, make, see, hear, feel, and let ; and sometimes after perceive, behold, 
observe, have, know, &c. in the active voice, but is retained after the same 
verbs in the passive ; as, 

1. Let me look at your portrait. 2. He bade me go with him. 
3. I heard him assert the opinion. 4. I like to see you behave so 
well. 5. Let him apply to his books, and then he will make improve- 
ment. 6. Let us make all the haste in our power. 7. I saw him ride 
past at great speed. 8. I have observed some satirists use the term. 

18. Verbs connected by conjunctions, are usually in the same mood and 
tense, but in the compound tenses, the sign is often used with the first only, 
and under stood with the rest ; as, 

1. He can neither read nor write. 2. He shall no longer tease 
and vex me as he has done. 3. He commanded them that they 
should not depart from Jerusalem, but wait for the promise of the 
father. 4. His diligence should have been commended and rewarded. 

19. Nouns and pronouns are often governed by a preposition understood; 
and nouns denoting time, value, weight, or measure, are used to restrict 
verbs or adjectives, without a governing word (828) ; as, 

1. He gave (to) me a full account of the whole affair. 2. Will 
you lend me your knife. 3. It is not time yet to go home. 4. He 
returned home at a very inconvenient season. 5. He traveled on 
foot, last summer, as far as London. 6. He was in Paris last month. 

20. The conjunctions than and as, implying comparison, have the same 
case after them as before them ; and the latter case has the same construe- 
tion as the former ; as, 

1. He has more books than my brother (has). 2. Mary is not so 
handsome as her sister (is). 3. They respect him more than (they 
respect) us. 4. James is not so diligent as Thomas. 5. They are 
much greater gainers than I, by this unexpected event. 

21. The class of words, or parts of speech to which a word belongs, de- 
pends often on its application ; as, 

1. Calm was the day and the scene delightful. 2. We may ex- 



124 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

pect a calm after a storm. 3. To prevent passion is easier than to 
calm it. 4. Better is a little with content, than a great deal with 
anxiety. 5. The gay and dissolute think little of the miseries which 
are stealing softly after them. 6. A little attention will rectify 
some errors. 7. Though he is out of danger, he is still afraid. 
8. He labored to still the tumult. 9. Still waters are commonly 
deepest. 10. Damp air is unwholesome. 11. Guilt often casts a 
damp over our sprightliest hours. 12. Soft bodies damp the sound 
much more than hard ones. 

22. Do, have, andhe, are principal verbs when used by themselves, but 
auxiliaries when connected with other verbs ; as, 

1. He does all in his power to gain esteem. 2. He did his utmost 
to please his friend. 3. We must do nothing that will sully our 
reputation. 4. She has a strong claim to our respect. 5. The man 
who has no sense of religion is little to be trusted. 6. He who does 
the most good has the most pleasure. 7. He is at home. 8. They 
are all well there. 

23. An infinitive, a participle used as a noun, or a member of a sen- 
tence, which may be calleda substantive phrase, is often the nominative to 
a verb, or the objective after an active transitive verb or preposition (762 
and 802) ; as, 

1. Nominative. — 1. To study hard is the best way to improve. 
2. To endure misfortune with resignation is the characteristic of a 
great mind. 3. To advise the ignorant, relieve the needy, and com- 
fort the distressed, are duties incumbent on all. 4. John's being 
from home occasioned the delay. 5. His having neglected opportu- 
nities of improvement, was the cause of his disgrace. 

2. Objective. — 1. He that knows how to do good and does it not, 
is without excuse. 2. He will regret his having neglected opportu- 
nities of improvement when it may be too late. 3. He declared that 
nothing could give him greater pleasure. 4. Of making many 
books there is no end. 5. You will never repent of having done 
your duty. 

24. When a substantive phrase (583, 23) is governed by a verb or prep- 
osition, this regimen does not affect the case of individual nouns or pro- 
nouns in that phrase, but leaves them subject to the influence of other words 
within the phrase itself 

If the infinitive or participle of the verb " to be," or of a passive verb 
of naming, &c, is used in this way without a definite subject, the sub- 
stantive which follows it as a predicate is neither the subject of a verb 
nor is under the regimen of any word ; thus, u His being an expert dan- 
cer does not entitle him to our regard." The phrase, " being an expert 
dancer" is the subject of the verb, " does entitle ," but the word "dancer," 



ETYMOLOGY — PARSING. 125 

in that phrase, is neither the subject of any verb, nor governed by any 
word in the sentence. Of this kind are all such expressions as the fol- 
lowing : " It is an honor to be the author of such a work." — " To be surety 
for a stranger is dangerous." — " The atrocious crime of being a young 
man, I shall attempt neither to palliate nor deny." — Pitt. In all such ex- 
amples, whether the phrase be the subject of a verb, or the object of an 
active-transitive verb or preposition, the noun or pronoun following the 
verb u to be," or a passive verb, is properly in the predicate-nominative 
(651 and 799). The words may be parsed separately, or the whole phrase 
may be parsed as one word. 

1 . He had the honor of being a director for life. 2. By being a 
diligent student, he soon acquired eminence in his profession. 
3. Many benefits result to men from being wise and temperate 
(men). 

25. It often refers to persons, or to an infinitive coming after : as, 

1. It is John that is to blame. 2. It was I that wrote the letter. 
3. It is the duty of all to improve. 4. It is the business of every 
man to prepare for death. 5. It was reserved for Newton to dis- 
cover the law of gravitation. 6. It is easy to form good resolutions 
but difficult to put them in practice. 7. It is incumbent on the 
young to love and honor their parents. 

26. Words, especially in poetry, are often much transposed; as, 

1. Great is Diana of the Ephesians. 2. On yourself depend for 
aid. 3. Happy the man who puts his trust in his Maker. 4. Of 
night the gloom was dark and dense. 

5. Or where the gorgeous east, with richest hand, 
Showers on her kings barbaric, pearls and gold. 

6. No hive hast thou of hoarded sweets. 

V. A transient calm the happy scenes bestow. 

As additional exercises in parsing, the little work entitled " Pro- 
gressive Exercises in Analysis and Parsing" may now be used, or 
sentences from any plain, simple, and accurate composition, such as 
are contained in the reading lessons, may be selected. The exer- 
cises under the head of "Analysis," page 12- &c, may be used for 
the same purpose. 



PART III. 



SYNTAX. 

584. Syntax is that part of grammar which treats 
of the proper arrangement and connection of words in 
a sentence. 

DEFINITIONS. 

585. A sentence is such an assemblage of words as contains an 
affirmation, and makes complete sense ; as, "Man is mortal" (660). 

586. A phrase is two or more words rightly put together, but not 
containing an affirmation or making complete sense ; as, "In truth" 
— "In a word" — "To say the least." 

587. A substantive phrase is one which, in the construction of a 
sentence, is equivalent to a noun or substantive, being 1. The sub- 
ject of a verb ; as, "To do good is to be happy " ; 2. The object of 
a transitive verb (320, 1) ; as, "To do good forget not." 3. The 
object of a preposition (540) ; as, " ¥>y pursuing this course he suc- 
ceeded." 4. The attribute after a copulative verb (604) ; as, " He 
appears to oe doing well" 

588. An adjunct is a preposition with its regimen (541) as related 
to its principal or antecedent term ; as, " The waters of Jordan" — 
" They came to Jordan." 

589. Sentences are of different kinds, according to the nature of 
the thought intended to be expressed. They are — 

1. Declaratory, or such as declare a thing; as, " God is love." 

2. Interrogatory, or such as ask a question ; as, " Lovest thou 
me f " 

3. Imperative, or such as express a command ; as, " Lazarus 
come forth." 

4. Exclamatory, or such as contain an exclamation ; as, " Behold 
how he loved him." 

590. All sentences are either simple or compound. See 635. Note. 

591. A simple sentence contains only a single affirmation ; as, 
"Life is short" 



SYNTAX — ANALYSIS. 127 

592. A compound sentence consists of two or more simple sen- 
tences connected together ; as, "Life, which is short, should be well 
improved. 11 

593. The simple sentences which make up a compound sentence, 
are called clauses or members (635, 636). 

I. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

The subject of Analysis here introduced will be found to be an inter- 
esting and profitable exercise for pupils, and an important preparation 
for the Construction of Sentences (660 &c). After the pupil has gone 
through this portion and become tolerably familiar with it, the Analysis 
of two or three sentences daily will be an amusement rather than a task. 
He should begin of course with sentences of the simplest character, grad- 
ually advancing to those that are more complex. For this purpose, sen- 
tences may be selected from any "Reading book" of easy lessons, or 
from "Parsing Exercises" (583), or from the little work entitled "Pro- 
gressive Exercises in Analysis and Parsing," adapted to this Gram- 
mar. At first, the teacher may direct the attention of the pupil orally 
to the order of Analysis by such questions as the following : What is a 
sentence? — Is this sentence [" God is good 11 ] simple or compound? — Why 
simple ? — What are the parts of a simple sentence (593) ? — What is the 
subject of a sentence (595)? — Of whom does this sentence affirm? — Then, 
what word is the subject of this sentence ? — What is the predicate of a 
sentence (600)? — What is here affirmed of the subject "God"? — Then 
what is the predicate in this sentence ? — Of how many parts does the 
predicate consist (601)? — What are they? In this predicate, what word 
is the attribute ? — What, the copula ? — What is a verb called when used 
as a copula only (604) ? — What are the verbs commonly used as copula- 
tives (605) ? Having, in some such way as this, conducted the analysis 
of simple sentences till the pupil has become familiar with it, the same, 
or a similar process may be pursued with sentences in which the subject 
or the predicate is modified ; and so with sentences having a compound 
subject (613), or a compound predicate (627); and then proceed to com- 
pound sentences (635), and to abridged propositions (648). After a few 
trials of this kind, the pupil will be able to analyze sentences without the 
aid of questions, and do it more rapidly and satisfactorily; thus : " God 
is good. 11 This is a simple declaratory sentence; it affirms of " God 11 
that he "is good 11 ; therefore, " God 11 is the subject; and "is good, 11 the 
predicate. In this predicate, "good 11 is the attribute, and "is, 11 the cop- 
ula ; it is therefore here a copulative verb (604). 

SIMPLE SENTENCES. 

594. .A simple sentence or proposition consists of two parts — the 
subject, and the predicate. 

595. The subject is that of which something is affirmed ; as, Snow 
is white. — Time flies. 

596. The subject of a verb or sentence is commonly a noun or a pro- 
noun ; as, " God is good ; he does good." Also, it may be an infinitive, 



128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

with (597) or without a subject (394), a participial noun(4:&2), a substan- 
tive phrase (587), or a clause of a sentence (593) ; as, " To lie is base." — 
" For us to lie is base." — " Lying is base." — " To do wrong knowingly is 
base." — " That men should lie is base" (646). 

597, When the infinitive with a subject in the objective case (872), is 
used as the subject of a proposition, it is introduced by the particle for ; 
as, " For us to lie is base." 

598, When a clause of a sentence, consisting of a finite verb (761) and 
its subject, is used as the subject of a proposition, it is introduced by the 
conjunction that ; as, " That men should lie is base." 

599, When the infinitive or the clause of a sentence as the subject fol- 
lows the verb, the pronoun it precedes it, referring to the subject (246, 2, 
4) ; as, " It is base that men shoidd lie" — " It is base to lie" — " It is base 
for us to lie" 

609. The predicate is that which is affirmed of the subject ; as, 
"Truth is mighty." — " God reigns." 

Note 1. — The word " affirm" here is to be understood as applying to 
all kinds of sentences — declaratory, whether affirmative or negative, in- 
terrogatory, imperative, or exclamatory (589). 

Note 2. — The name of a person or thing addressed forms no part of 
the sentence; as, " Lazarus, come forth." 

601. The predicate properly consists of two parts — the attribute 

affirmed of the sutyect, and the copula by which the affirmation is 

made. 

Thus, in the sentence, " God is love," " God" is the subject, and 
" is love" is the predicate, in which " love" is the attribute, and " is "the 
copula. 

602. The attribute and copula are often expressed by one word, 
which, in that case must always be a verb ; as, " The fire burns." 
==" The fire is burning." 

603. The predicate may be a noun or pronoun, an adjective, some- 
times & preposition with its case, or an adverb — also an infinitive, or 
clause of a sentence, connected with the subject by a copula, see ex- 
amples (621 and 622) : or it may be a verb, which includes in itself 
both attribute and copula (602). 

604. When a verb does not complete the predicate, but is used as a 
copula only, it is called a copulative verb; as, "Home is sweet": When 
it includes both attribute and copula, it is called an attributive verb ; as, 
" Time flies." 

605. The copulative verbs are such as to be, to become, to seem, to ap- 
pear, and the passives of deem, style, call, name, consider, &c. 

606. The verbs to be, to appear, are sometimes also used as attributives ; 
as, " There are lions in Africa " = " Lions are in Africa." — " The stars ap- 
pear." When so used, and the subject is placed after the verb, the sen- 
tence is introduced by the word there (529), as in the first example. 



SYNTAX — ANALYSIS. 129 



EXERCISES. 



1. In the following, point out which are sentences, and why — which are 
phrases, and why. 

2. In the sentences, what is the subject, and why ? — What is the predi- 
cate, and why. Also which predicates are made by copulative verbs, and 
which, by attributives. In both, what is the attribute ? 

Snow is white. — Ice is cold. — Birds fly. — Roses blossom. — 
The tree is tall. — The fields are green. — Grass grows. — To say 
nothing. — Man is mortal. — God is immortal. — Home is sweet. 
— Sweet is home. — Who is Paul? — Has he come ? — WillJames 
go ? — Are you tired ? — At all events. — To be sure. 

3. Make sentences of which one of the following words shall be the 
subject, i. e. affirm something respecting each of them. 

Trees, birds, horses, a sparrow, the stone, the thunder, the 
wind, the clouds, time, he. 

4. Analyze each of the sentences thus made, as directed above, No. 2. 

THE SUBJECT. 

607. I. The subject of a proposition is either grammatical or lo- 
gical, 

608. The grammatical subject is the person or thing spoken of, 
unlimited by other words ; as, "Knowledge is power." 

609. The logical subject is the person or thing spoken of, togeth- 
er with all the words or phrases by which it is limited or defined : 
thus. 

In the sentence, "Every man at his best state is vanity," the gram- 
matical subject is " man" ; the logical is, " Every man at his best state." 

610. When the grammatical subject has no limiting words connected 
with it, then the grammatical and the logical subject are the same ; as, 
u God is good." 

611. II. The subject of a proposition is either simple or compound. 

612. A simple subject consists of one subject of thought (596) ; 
as, " Time is money." 

613. A compound subject consists of two or more simple subjects, 
to which belongs but one predicate; as, "James and John are 
brothers."— 14 You and /are friends."— 14 Two and three are five." 
— u Time and tide wait for no man." * 

* The subject is here considered as compound, whether the predicate can be affirmed 
of each simple subject or not. Thus, we can say, " Time waits for no man, and tide 
waits for no man " ; but we can not say, " Two are five, and three are five." Still, the 
preceding examples — " Time and tide^ and " two and three" — are equally considered as 
compound subjects, because they consist each of more than one subject. 
6* 



130 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



EXERCISES. 

1. 1. In each of the following sentences, point out the grammatical 
subject — the logical. 

The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom. — Wisdom's 
ways are pleasantness : all her paths are peace. — -The love of 
money is the root of all evil.- — Human knowledge is progres- 
sive. — Righteousness exalteth a nation. 

II. 1. In each of the following sentences, point out the subject, — the 
'predicate. 

2. State whether the subjects are simple or compound; limited or un- 
limited. In each, point out the grammatical subject — the logical subject. 

Paul and Silas sang praises to God. — Peter and John went 
up into the temple. — Gold and silver are precious metals. — Lo- 
custs and wild honey were his food. — Socrates and Plato were 
Grecian philosophers. — In unity consist the welfare and security 
of society. — Summer and winter shall not cease. — Three and 
three are six. — John and Jane are a handsome couple. 

3. Write predicates to the following compound subjects : — 

James and John. — He and she. — You and I. — -The rich and 
the poor. — Virtue and vice. — Heat and cold. — France and 
Mexico. — The sun and the moon. 

MODIFICATIONS OF THE SUBJECT. 

614. A grammatical subject, being a noun, may be modified, lim- 
ited, or described, in various ways ; as, 

1. By a noun in apposition — i. e., a noun added in the same case for 

the sake of explanation (668) ; as, " Milton the poet was blind." 

2. By a noun in the possessive case ; as, " Aaronh rod budded." 

3. By an adjunct (541) ; as, u The works of Nature are beautiful." 

4. By an adjective w r ord (that is, an article,* adjective, adjective pro- 

noun, or participle); as, "The hour has arrived." — " A good name 
is better than riches." — "Your time is precious."— -"Lost time can 
not be recovered." 

5. By a relative and its clause ; as, "He who does no good, does harm." 

6. By an infinitive mood; as, "A desire to learn is praiseworthy." 

*!. By a clause of a sentence (593) ; as, "The fact that he tvas a scholar 
was manifest." 

8. Each grammatical subject may have several modifications ; as, 
" Several stars of less magnitude, which we had not observed be- 
fore, now appeared." 

* Though, for the reason assigned (192), the article is not properly a Ihnithig word, yet, 
as it shows that the word is limited or modified in some way, it is here ranked among the 
modifiers. 



SYNTAX — ANALYSIS. 131 

615. A grammatical subject, being a pronoun, is usually modified 
by a noun in apposition ; as, " I, Paul, would have come " : or by 
a relative clause as in No. 5 above. 

Note. — Pronouns of the third person, and also relative pronouns, refer 
to their antecedents together with their modifications; as, u Rebuke a 
wise man, and he will love thee." 

616. When the grammatical subject is an infinitive, or a participle 
used as a noun, it may be modified like the verb in the predicate 
(630). 

EXERCISES. 

In the following propositions, point out the grammatical subject — the 
logical — and state how the grammatical subject is modified : — 

All men are not wise. — Tall oaks from little acorns grow. — 
Milton's " Paradise Lost " is a work of great merit. — Wisdom's 
ways are pleasantness. — The love of money is the root of all 
evil. — Evil communications corrupt good manners. — The dispo- 
sition to do good should be cherished. — The walls of Babylon 
were fifteen miles long. — A desire to excel will stimulate to 
exertion. — The effort to succeed will be crowned with success. 
— All things come alike to all. 

Write sentences which have the subject modified by a noun in apposi- 
tion — or a noun in the possessive case — or by an adjunct — or by an ad- 
jective word — or by an infinitive mood — or by a clause of a sentence. 

MODIFICATION OF MODIFYING WORDS. 

617, Modifying or limiting words may themselves be modified: — 

1. A noun modifying another, may itself be modified in all the ways in 

which a noun as a grammatical subject is modified (614). 

2. An adjective qualifying a noun may itself be modified : — 

1. By an adjunct; as, " Be not weary in well-doing? 

2. By an adverb ; as, " Truly virtuous men often endure reproach." 

3. By an infinitive ; as, " Be swift to hear, and slow to speak? 

3. Again, an adverb may be modified : — 

1. By an adjunct; as, "Agreeably to Nature? 

2. By another adverb ; as, " Yours very sincerely." 

618. A modified grammatical subject, regarded as a complex idea, may 
itself be modified ; as, The old black horse is dead. — The first two lines 
are good, the last two are bad. Here old, first, last, — each modifying 
subjects already modified, viz., black horse, two lines, two (lines), 

EXERCISES. 

1. In the following sentences, by what words are the modifying nouns 
modified? — the adjectives ? — the adverbs? 



132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Solomon, the son of David, built the temple at Jerusalem. — 
Josephus, the Jewish historian, relates the destruction of the 
temple. — That picture is a tolerably good copy of the original. 
— Pride, that never failing vice of fools, is not easily defined. 
— The author of Junius's letters is still unknown. — Truly great 
men are far above worldly pride. 

2. In the following sentences, point out the subject and the predicate. 
In modified subjects, distinguish the grammatical sli\<1 logical (608, 609). 

To be good is to be happy. — To create creatures liable to 
wants, is to render them susceptible of enjoyment. — To hear 
patiently, and to answer precisely, are the great perfections of 
conversation. — To speak the truth is but a small part of our 
duty. — It is a difficult thing to be idle (599).— It is a wise pro- 
vision of Providence that inferior animals have not the gift of 
speech. — It is not intended that any individual should possess 
all advantages. — That any individual should possess all advan- 
tages is not intended. 



THE PREDICATE. 

619. — I. The predicate, like the subject (607), is either grammat- 
ical or logical. 

620. The grammatical predicate consists of the attribute and cop- 
ula (601), not modified by other words. 

621. The attribute, which, together with the copula, forms the predi- 
cate, may be expressed by a noun or pronoun, an adjective, a participle, 
a preposition with its regimen, and sometimes an adverb ; as, " James is 
a scholar" — " James is he " — " James is diligent " — u James is learned" 
— " James is in health" — "John is not so." 

622. The attribute is also expressed by an infinitive, or a dependent 
clause : as, " To obey is to enjoy." — " The day is to be celebrated."- — " The 
order is, that we must go." 

623. The logical predicate is the grammatical, with all the words 
or phrases that modify it. Thus — 

"Nero was cruel to his subjects." — "Was cruel" is the grammatical, 
and " was cruel to his subjects," the logical predicate. Again : " The 
Greeks took Troy by stratagem." — " Took" is the grammatical, and "took 
Troy by stratagem " is the logical predicate. 

624. When the grammatical predicate has no modifying terms 
connected with it, the grammatical and the logical predicate are the 
same; as, "Life is, short" — " The fire burns" 

EXERCISES. 

In the following sentences, name the subject and predicate. In each, 
tell what is the grammatical predicate, and what is the logical predicate : 



SYNTAX — ANALYSIS. 133 

Time flies. — The summer is past. — The fields are covered 
with grain. — Great is truth. — Columbus discovered America. — 
America was discovered by Columbus. — A free press is the 
beginning of a free government. — All governments should be 
founded on love. — It is religion that gives liberty to the world. 

625. — II. The predicate, like the subject, is either simple or 
compou?id (611). 

626. A simple predicate ascribes to its subject but one attribute ; 
as, "Life is short."—" Time flies." 

627. A compound predicate consists of two or more simple predi- 
cates affirmed of one subject ; as, " Csesar came, and saw, and con- 
quered." =" Truth is great and will prevail." 

EXERCISES. 

In the following sentences, name the subject and predicate. State 
whether the predicate is simple or compound. Distinguish the grammat- 
ical and logical : — 

Man is mortal. — Wisdom is the principal thing. — God is 
good and merciful. — Honesty is praised and neglected. — The 
heart is the best and the worst part of man. — The use of travel 
is to widen the sphere of observation, and to enable us to ex- 
amine and judge of things for ourselves. — Avarice is a mean 
and cowardly vice. — Talent is strength and subtility of mind. 
— Genius is mental inspiration and delicacy of feeling. — Talent 
is the lion and the serpent — genius is the eagle and the dove. 

MODIFICATIONS OF THE PREDICATE. 

628. A grammatical predicate may be modified or limited in different 
ways. 

629. When the attribute (601) in the grammatical predicate is a noun, 
it is modified — 

1. By a noun or pronoun, limiting or describing the attribute ; as, " He 

is John the Baptist." — " He is my friend." — " He is my father's 
friend." 

2. By an adjective or participle, limiting the attribute; as, " Solomon 

was a wise king." — u It is a bird singing." 

630. When the grammatical predicate is an attributive verb (604), it is 
modified — 

1. By a noun or pronoun in the objective case, as the object of the at- 
tributive verb ; as, " John reads Homer" — " I have heard him." 

2. By an adverb ; as, "John reads well." 

3. By an adjunct (541); as, " They live in London." 

4. By an infinitive ; as, " Boys love to play." 

5. By a dependent clause; as, "Plato taught that the soul in immortal." 



131 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

631. An infinitive or participle may be modified in all respects as the 
verb in the predicate (630). 

632. A modifying clause, if a dependent proposition, may be modified 
in both its subject and predicate as other propositions. 

633. All other modifying words may themselves be modified, as similar 
words are when modifying the subject (614). 

634. Several modifications are sometimes connected with the same 
predicate. 

EXERCISES. 

In the following sentences, name the subject and predicate — distinguish 
the grammatical arid the logical predicate — show in what way the gram- 
matical predicate is modified in the logical. 

According to some ancient philosophers, the sun quenches his 
flames in the ocean. — Sincerity and truth form the basis of ev- 
ery virtue. — The coach will leave the city in the morning at 
sunrise. — The Spartan youth were accustomed to go barefoot. — 
The atrocious crime of being a young man I shall attempt 
neither to palliate nor deny. — Trusting in God implies a belief 
in him. — His pretence was, that the storm prevented his attend- 
ance. — His intention was to destroy the fleet. — Time flies rap- 
idly. — I confess that I am in fault. — William has determined to 
go. — I wish that he may succeed in his enterprise. — They said, 
" Thou hast saved our lives." 

In the preceding exercises, show in which sentences, and by what words, 
the modifiers of the predicate are themselves modified — also, in which 
the predicate has more than one modifier. 

COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

635. A Compound sentence consists of two or more simple sen- 
tences or propositions (592) connected together; as, " If time is 
money, wasting it must be prodigality."* 

636. The propositions which make up a compound sentence are 
called members or clauses. In the preceding compound sentence, 
the members are, " Time is money," and, "wasting it must be prod- 
igality." 

* Some grammarians divide sentences into simple, complex, and compound. Accord- 
ing to this division complex sentences are those which have one or more of their mem- 
bers dependent or subordinate ; and compound sentences are those whose members are 
all independent or coordinate. This classification seems to be defective in logical accu- 
racy inasmuch as every complex sentence is, in one view at least (646), also compounds 
and is of course included under that head. The division in the text is believed to be 
more simple and accurate than the threefold division here proposed. 



SYNTAX ANALYSIS. 135 

INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT CLAUSES. 

637. The clauses of a compound sentence are either independent 
or dependent ; sometimes called co-ordinate and subordinate. 

638. An independent clause is one that makes complete sense by 
itself. 

639. A dependent clause is one that makes complete sense only in 
connection with another clause. 

Thus, "We left when the sun set;" "We left," is an independent 
clause; it makes sense by itself; "when the sun set," is a dependent 
clause ; it does not make complete sense unless joined with the other 
clause. 

640. The dependent clause may often stand first ; as, "When the sun 
set, we left." 

641. All the clauses of a sentence may be independent ; one of them 
always must be independent. 

642. The clause on which another depends is called the leading clause ; 
its subject, the leading subject ; and its predicate, the leading predicate! 
But this leading clause itself may be dependent on another, which is a 
leading clause to it. 

EXERCISES. 

In the following sentences, state which are simple, and which are com- 
pound. In the compound sentences, point out the members or clauses :— 

Ignorance moves our pity, and that modifies our aversion. 

If we have not always time to read, we have always time to 
reflect. — The poor is hated even of his own neighbor, but the 
rich hath many friends.— The eyes of the Lord are in every 
place beholding the evil and the good.— Righteousness exalteth 
a nation, but sin is a reproach to any people. — Pride goeth be- 
fore destruction, and a haughty spirit, before a fall. — Death and 
life are in the power of the tongue. — Though he slay me, yet 
will I trust in him.— The slothful man saith, "There is a lion 
in the way."— When the righteous are in authority, the people 
rejoice. 

In the preceding simple sentences and members, point out the subject 
and predicate, with their respective modifications — state what clauses are 
independent, and what dependent. 

CONNECTION OF CLAUSES. 

643. Clauses of the same kind, that is, independent or dependent, 
are connected by such conjunctions as and, or, nor, but, yet, and the 
like ; as, " The harvest is past, the summer is ended, and we are not 
saved." 



136 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

644. In such sentences, the connective is often omitted, and generally, 
when the sentence consists of more than two members, it is omitted in 
all except the last, as in the above example (643). 

645. The members of a compound sentence, containing one or 
more dependent clauses, are usually connected by relatives, con- 
junctions, or conjunctive adverbs (534) ; thus, 

Relative — " That which can not oe cured, must be endured." 
Conjunction — " The miser lives poor, that he may die rich." 
Conjunctive Adverb — " We shall go when the cars go." 

In the first sentence, the relative not only stands as the subject of "can 
not be cured" but also connects its clause with the leading clause ; that 
connects the clauses in the second example, and whenjn. the third. 

640, When a clause connected by that can be regarded either as the 
subject or the object of the verb in the leading clause, it is in construc- 
tion equivalent to a substantive, and the whole may be regarded as a 
simple sentence, though in form really compound. Thus, in the sentence, 
" That men should lie is base" there are two clauses connected by that, 
constituting, of course, a compound sentence, and yet the dependent 
clause, u That men shoidd lie" is really the subject of is, and equivalent 
to a noun. Thus viewed, the whole may be regarded as a simple sentence. 
So also, when the dependent clause is the object of the leading verb ; as, 
" I said that ye are gods ; " and also when either subject or predicate is 
modified by a relative clause. 

647. The connecting word is sometimes omitted ; as, " This is the book 
I lost ; I suppose you found it, " for, u This is the book which I lost; I 
suppose that you found it." 

EXERCISES, 

In the following compound sentences, state which contain only inde- 
pendent clauses, and which contain dependent ones — point out the de- 
pendent clauses, and show on what leading clauses they depend — name 
the connecting words — state which may also be regarded as simple sen- 
tences (646). 

The weather was fine and the roads were excellent, but we 
were unfortunate in our companions. — It is said that the Atlan- 
tic is three thousand miles broad. — While the bridegroom tarried 
they all slumbered. — As [is] a bird that wandereth from her nest, 
so is a man that wandereth from his place. — Beauty attracts 
admiration, as honor [attracts] applause. — Talent is environed 
with many perils, and beauty, [is environed] with many weak- 
nesses. — If we aim at nothing, we shall certainly achieve no- 
thing. — Time is ever advancing, but leaves behind it the traces 
of its flight. — This we know, that our future depends on our 
present. — Books which save the trouble of thinking are in great 
demand. — After the new world had been discovered, Ferdinand 
made a decree that no lawyers should embark thither. — That is 



SYNTAX — ANALYSIS. 137 

best which is most rational. — When I was a child, I thought as 
a child ; but when I became a man, I put away childish thingSo 
— I will come again and receive you to myself, that where I 
am, there ye may be also. 

In the following sentences, what connecting words are omitted? 

Pay me that thou owest. — It is said he can not pay his debts. 
— There is no doubt he is a man of integrity. — I am sure we 
can never accomplish this without assistance. — That is all you 
know.— All you can find is yours. — Could we have foreseen 
this difficulty, we might have avoided it. — I soon perceived I 
had still the power of motion. — The author dreads the critic ; 
the miser, the thief; the criminal, the judge. 

ABRIDGED PROPOSITIONS. 

648» A compound sentence may sometimes be converted into a 
simple one, by abridging its dependent clause. 

649. A dependent clause is frequently abridged by omitting the 
connecting word, and changing the verb of the predicate into a par- 
ticiple or infinitive, 

650. The participle in the abridged clause will then stand either with 
its substantive in the case absolute (769), or as a modifier of the leading 
subject. Thus, Absolute — " When the boys have finished their lessons, 
we will play ; " abridged, " The boys having finished their lessons, we will 
play." As a modifier — " When we have finished our lessons we will 
play ; " abridged, " Having finished our lessons we will play." Passively 
and absolutely — " When our work is finished we will play ; " abridged, 
" Our work being finished, we will play." 

651. When the attribute, in the dependent clause, consists of a noun 
or pronoun in the nominative case after the verb as a copula, it remains 
in the same case in the abridged form; thus, "That he is a judge is of 
no consequence;" abridged, "His being & judge is of no consequence." 
— u I was not aware that he was a judge ; " abridged, " I was not aware 
of his being a, judge" (799). 

652. The difference between these two modes of expression is this : In 
the full form, the idea contained in the dependent clause is affirmed ; in 
the abridged form, it is assumed. 

653. When the dependent clause is the object of the verb in the lead- 
ing clause, it may often be changed for the infinitive w r ith a subject; as, 
" I know that he is a scholar ; " abridged, " I know him to be & scholar." 

654. When, in such cases, the subject of the dependent clause is the 
same as the subject of the principal, it is omitted in the abridged form ; 
as, " I wished that 1 might go ; " abridged, " I wished to go." 

655. When the subject of the dependent clause, connected by what, 
which, whom, where, when, how, and the like, and relating to somethii.g 
yet future, is the same as that of the independent one, it is sometimes 



138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

abridged by retaining the connecting word, and omitting the subject be- 
fore the infinitive ; as, u I know not what I shall do ; " abridged, "I know 
not what to do." In this way are to be analyzed and explained such 
phrases as, " Where to go" " when to read" u how to do" " whom to send" 
&c. 

656. A dependent clause may often be abridged by substituting an 
equivalent qualifying word, or an adjunct ; as, " The man who is honest 
will be respected ; " abridged, " The honest man will be respected." — 
" When the sunset we returned ; " abridged, "At sunset we returned." 

697. Several dependent clauses may be variously connected with the 
same leading clause, and abridged in the same manner as above ; as, 
" When they arrived at the station, they were informed that the cars had 
passed, an hour before ; " abridged, " Having arrived [or, on arriving] 
at the station, they were informed of the cars having passed an hour 
before." 

EXERCISES. 

1. Abridge such propositions in the preceding exercises as can be 
abridged. 

2. Extend the following abridged simple sentences into compound sen- 
tences. 

Having doubled Cape Horn, we sailed in a direct course for 
California. — What to do I know not. — No one can tell us where 
to go, or how to do. — The war being at an end, the troops were 
disbanded. — At the close of navigation, many will be at a loss 
where to go. — The industrious and capable need fear no want. 
— A good name is the richest possession we have while living, 
and the best legacy we leave behind us when dead. — Of his 
having been successful, we have full assurance. — Of his being 
successful now, there is reason to doubt. 

658. DIRECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS. 

State whether the sentence is simple or compound. 

If simple, name the logical subject and the logical predicate. 

Name the grammatical subject. 

Show by what words or phrases, if any, the grammatical sub- 
ject is modified in the logical. 

Show by what modifying words, if any, each modifying word is 
modified. 

Name the grammatical predicate. 

Show by what words or phrases, if any, the grammatical predi- 
cate is modified in the logical. 

Show by what modifying words or phrases, if any, each modify- 
ing word is modified. 



SYNTAX ANALYSIS. 139 

If the sentence is compound, mention the members or clauses. 

State whether they are independent or dependent. 

Show how the members are connected. 

Analyze each member as a simple sentence, by showing its sub- 
ject, predicate, &c, as above. 

In analyzing sentences, it will be necessary always to supply words left 
out by ellipsis, and to supply the antecedent to the relative what, and to 
the compound relatives, whoever, whosoever, whatever, whatsoever; making 
also the change which is necessary in the relatives themselves, when the 
antecedent is supplied (266). 



659. MODELS OF ANALYSIS. 

1. " God is good." 

This is a simple sentence, because it contains a single affirmation (591). 

God is the logical subject, because it is that of which the quality good 
is affirmed. 

Is good is the logical predicate, because it affirms a quality of its sub- 
ject. Is is the verb or copula, and good is the attribute. 

In this sentence, the grammatical subject and predicate are the same 
as the logical, because they are not modified by other words (610 
and 624). 

Or, more briefly, thus, 

The logical subject is God. 

The logical predicate is is good, in which is is the verb or copula, and 
good the attribute. 

The grammatical subject and predicate are the same as the logical. 

2. "The sun and moon stood still." 

This is a simple sentence, with a compound subject. 

The logical subject is The sim and moon. 

The logical predicate is stood still. 

The grammatical subject is sun and moon, compound, and connected 
by and, both modified by the (614, 4, Note, and 711). 

The grammatical predicate is stood, modified by still, an adverb, ex- 
pressing manner. 

3. " The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom." 
This is a simple sentence. 

The logical subject is The fear of the lord. 

The logical predicate is is the beginning of wisdom. 

The grammatical subject is fear. It is limited by the adjunct, of the 

Lord, and shown to be limited by the article the (614,4, Note). 
The grammatical predicate is is beginning, in which is is the verb or 

copula, and beginning the attribute. It is limited by the adjunct, of 

wisdom, and shown to be limited by the. 

4. "A good man does what (=that which) is right, from prin- 
ciple." 

This is a compound sentence, containing one leading, and one depend- 
ent clause, connected by which. 

The independent clause is A good man does that from principle. 



140 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The dependent clause is which is right, and is restrictive of that in the 
leading clause, the antecedent to which, the connecting word. 

In the first or leading clause — 

The logical subject is A good man. 

The logical predicate is does that from principle* 

The grammatical predicate is man, qualified by good, and shown to be 
indefinite by a. 

The grammatical predicate is does, modified by its object, that, and the 
adjunct from principle ; that is modified by the relative clause. 

In the second, or dependent clause — 

The logical subject is which. It also connects its clause with the ante- 
cedent that, and restricts it. 

The logical predicate is is right, in which is is the verb or copula, and 
right is the attribute. 

The grammatical subject and predicate are the same as the logical (610 
and 624). 

5. " There is nothing which all mankind venerate and admire so 
much as simple truth." 

This is a compound sentence consisting of one independent clause, and 
two dependent clauses. 

The independent clause is There is nothing. 

The first dependent clause is which all mankind venerate and admire so 
much, connected to the preceding by which. 

The second dependent clause, connected by as to the preceding, as its 
leading member, is, {they venerate and admire] simple truth. 

In the first, or independent proposition — 

The logical subject is ?tothing=not any thing. 

The logical predicate is is. 

The grammatical subject and predicate are the same as the logical. 
There is an introductory expletive, used in such sentences when the 
subject follows the verb. 

In the second proposition, dependent on the first — 

The logical subject is all mankind. 

The logical predicate is venerate and admire which so much. 

The grammatical subject is mankind, modified by all. 

The grammatical predicate is venerate and admire, compound, con- 
nected by and, and modified by their object, which, which also con- 
nects its clause with its antecedent, thing, for the purpose of restrict- 
ing it, and by the adverbial phrase, so much. 

In the third proposition, connected with the second by as — 

The logical subject is they, understood (for all mankind). 

The logical predicate is venerate and admire simple truth. 

The grammatical subject is they, or the same as in the preceding clause. 

The grammatical predicate is venerate and admire understood, modified 
by their object, truth, and that is qualified by the adjective, simple. 



SYNTAX — ANALYSIS. 1-il 

6. " Conversation makes a man wax wiser than himself, and that 
more "by an hour's discourse than by a day's meditation." 

This is a compound sentence, consisting of two independent clauses, 
connected by and /each of them has its own dependent clause. 

The first independent clause is Conversation makes a man [to] wax wiser. 
Its dependent clause is himself [is], connected by than. 

The second independent clause is [it does] that more by an hour's dis- 
course. Its dependent clause is [it does] by a day's meditation, connected 
by than, 

(The words supplied are included in brackets.) 

In the Jirst independent clause — 

The logical subject is conversation. 

The logical predicate is makes a man [to] wax wiser. 

The grammatical subject is the same as the logical. 

The grammatical predicate is makes, modified by its object, man, which 
is also the subject of the verb to wax (872). It is shown to be used 
indefinitely by a, and is qualified by the predicative adjective iviser. 

In the clause dependent on the preceding, and connected by than — 

The logical subject is himself (in the nominative) (249). 

The logical predicate is is (understood). 

The grammatical subject and predicate are the same as the logical. 

In the second independent proposition connected to the first by and — 

The logical subject is it understood (for conversation). 

T fc he logical predicate is [does] that more by an hour's discourse. 

The grammatical subject is the same as the logical. 

The grammatical predicate is does (understood). It is modified by its 
object that, representing the phrase makes a man wax wiser ; also 
by the adverb more, and the adjunct by discourse ; and discourse is 
limited by hour's which again is shown to be indefinite by the arti- 
cle an. 

In the clause dependent on the preceding, and connected by than — 

The logical subject is it (conversation) understood. 

The logical predicate is [does] by a day's meditation. 

The grammatical subject is the same as the logical. 

The grammatical predicate is does (understood, as before), modified by 

the adjunct by meditation — meditation is limited by day's, and that is 

shown to be indefinite by the article a. 

7. " The minutest plant or animal, if attentively examined, affords 
a thousand wonders, and obliges us to admire and adore the Omni- 
potent hand by which it was created." 

This is a compound sentence, consisting of one independent clause, and 
two dependent clauses. 

The independent clause is The minutest plant or animal affords a thous- 
and xoonders, and obliges us to admire and adore the 0?nnipotent hand. 



142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The first dependent clause is [it is~] attentively examined, connected as 
a condition by if to the leading verbs affords and obliges. 

The second dependent clause is by which it was created, connected also 
by which to hand in order to describe it. 

In the independent clause — 

The logical subject is The minutest plant or animal. 

The logical predicate is affords a thousand wonders, and obliges us to 
admire and adore the Omnipotent hand. 

The grammatical subject is plant and animal, compound; its parts are 
connected as alternates by or (569), and both modified by minutest 
(104). 

The grammatical predicate is affords and obliges, compound ; its parts 
are connected by and. Affords is modified by its object, ivonders, 
which is limited by a thousand. Obliges is modified by its object, us, 
the infinitive to admire and to adore, of which us is also the sub- 
ject, and these infinitives are modified by their object, hand, which 
is qualified and described by Omnipotent, and the relative clause by 
which it was created. The verbs affords and obliges are modified also 
by the conditional clause if [it is] attentively examined. 

In the first dependent clause — 

The logical subject is it, referring to plant or animal. 

The logical predicate is is attentively examined. 

The grammatical subject is it. 

The grammatical predicate is is examined ; which is modified by the 
adverb of manner, attentively. 

In the second dependent clause — 

The logical subject is it, referring to plant or animal. 

The logical predicate is was created by which. 

The grammatical subject is the same as the logical. 

The grammatical predicate is was created. It is modified by the ad- 
junct, by which, referring to hand, its antecedent. 

The preceding process of analysis, which takes up so much room 
on paper, may be accomplished orally with great rapidity. Let this 
be done in the following — 

EXERCISES. 
In the same way, analyze the following sentences : — 
Knowledge is power. — Truth is the basis of honor : It is the 
beginning of virtue : It liveth and conquereth for ever. — Time 
is a gift bestowed on us by the bounty of Heaven. — The heart 
and the tongue are the best and the worst parts of man. 
Proficiency in language is a rare accomplishment. 

Praise is more acceptable to the heart than profitable to the 
mind. 



S Y N T A X — A NALYSIS. 143 

He who is first to condemn, will often be the last to forgive. 

True religion gives order and beauty to the world, and, after 
life, a better existence. 

A little philosophy carries us away from truth, while a great- 
er brings us back to it again. 

What we know is nothing, but what we are ignorant of is 
immense. 

Whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye even 
so to them. 

Many men have been obscure in their origin and birth, but 
great and glorious in life and death. 

To hear patiently, and to answer precisely, are the great per- 
fections of conversation. 

Books which save the trouble of thinking, and inventions 
which save the labor of working, are in universal demand. 

Solon compared the people to the sea, and orators and coun- 
sellors to the winds ; for (he said) that the sea would be calm 
and quiet if the winds did not trouble it. 

Some cultivate philosophy in theory, who are imperfect phi- 
losophers in practice ; as others advocate religion, who are 
nevertheless indifferently religious. 



II. CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES. 

660« Words are arranged in sentences, according to 
certain rules, called the Rules of Syntax (662 and 666). 

661, GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 

1. In every sentence there must be a verb and its nominative (or 
subject), expressed or understood. 

2. Every article, adjective, adjective pronoun, or participle, must 
have a substantive (109), expressed or understood. 

3. Every nominative or subject has its own verb, expressed or 
understood. 

4. Every finite verb (that is, every verb not in the infinitive or 
participles) has its own nominative, expressed or understood. 

5. Every possessive case is governed by a noun or substantive 
whose signification it serves to limit. 

6. Every objective case is governed by a transitive verb in the 



144 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

active voice, or a preposition, or denotes circumstances of time, value, 
weight, or measure (828). 

7. The infinitive mood is governed by a verb, adjective, or noun. 

The exceptions to these general principles will appear under the Rules 
of Syntax. 

PARTS OF SYNTAX. 

662, The Rules of Syntax may all be referred to 
three heads, viz., Concord or agreement. Government, 
and Position. 

683« Concord is the agreement which one word has 
with another in gender, number, case, or person. 

664. Government is the power which one word has 
in determining the mood, tense, or case, of another 
word. The word governed by another word is called 
its regimen. 

665. Position means the place which a word occupies 
in relation to other words in a sentence. 

666. In the English language, which has but few inflections, the 
meaning of a sentence often depends much on the position of the 
words of which it consists. 



RULES OP SYNTAX. 

Rule I. — Substantives denoting the same person or 
thing agree in case ; as, 

The river Thames. Cicero the orator. Paul the apostle. I myself. 
I Paul have written it. I Wisdom dwell with Prudence. Napoleon the 
third (emperor of that name). Ye men of Athens. Queen Mary (667, &c.). 

Rule II. — 1. An adjective or participle qualifies the 
substantive to which it belongs ; as, 

A good boy; anew book; an old hat; a rough road; a steep hill; a 
lofty mountain ; God is good ; an amusing story ; a man loved by all. 

2. Adjectives denoting one, qualify nouns in the sin- 
gular : adjectives denoting more than one, qualify nouns 
in the plural ; as, 

One man; this book; that house; two men; these books; those houses; 
the sixth day; seven days; several weeks; many sorrows; these people; 
this court (676, &c). 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 145 

Rule III. — 1. The article a or an is put before com- 
mon nouns in the singular number, when used indefi- 
nitely ; as, 

A man; a house; a tree; an acorn ; an hour; a history; an historical 
fact; a youth; a unit. 186 — 187 and 707. 

2. The article the is put before common nouns either 
singular or plural, when used definitely ; as, 

"The sun shines." — "The moon rises." — "The city of New York." — 
"The age of improvement." — "The seven stars." — "The twelve Caesars." 
— "The most virtuous (men) are the most happy" (707, 2). 

Rule IV. — Pronouns agree with the nouns for which 
they stand in gender, number, and person ; as, 

"All that a man hath will he give for his life." — "A tree is known by 
its fruit." — "Jane is fond of her books; though she has long lessons, she 
learns them well." — "The court has finished its business." — "The people 
elect their rulers" (729, &c). 

Rule V. — The relative agrees with its antecedent in 
number and person ; as, 

"The man who speaks." — "The book which was lost." — "The friends 
whom we love." — "Ye who love mercy." — "I that speak to you." — "The 
same man that we saw." — "The best thing you can do" (742, &c). 

Rule VI. — The subject of a finite verb is put in the 
nominative; as, 

" I am."—" Thou speakest."— " He reads."— " We talk."—" Time flies." 
—"Who did that?" — "I know who did it." — "Do you know who is to 
blame ?" — " He is taller than I (am) — than she (is)" (760, &c). 

Rule VII. — A substantive whose case depends on no 
other word is put in the nominative absolute ; as, 

"The ship having arrived, all is safe." — "He being alone, there was no 
one to disturb him." — "Your fathers, where are they?" — "Or I only and 
Barnabas, have not we power to forbear working?" — "0 Absalom! my 
son, my son!" — "Plato, thou reasonest well "(768, &c). 

Rule VIII. — A verb agrees with its nominative in 
number and person ; as, 

"I write."— "Thou writest."— "He reads."— "We sell."— " They buy." 
— "John and James are brothers." — "Jane or Mary is at home."— "The 
army is on its march." — "The people are kind." — "The man who met 
us." — " He that is soon angry dealeth foolishly." — "Come (ye) and see." 
—"Go thou and do likewise?'— " Who art thou?" (776, &c"). 

Rule IX. — The predicate substantive after a verb is 
put in the same case as the subject before it; as, 

7 



146 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

"I am he."— " Ye are thev who justify yourselves."— " God is love."— 
44 Who do men say that I, the Son of man, am?"— "He is a good man. — 
"He is said to be a good man."— " They represented him to be a good 
man."— " Saying is not doing" (796, &c> 

Rule X.— A transitive verb in the active voice, gov- 
erns the objective case ; as, 

« We love him."— " He loves us."— " Whom shall I send ?"— « Send me. jj 
—"Honor thv father and mother."— "Them that honor me I will honor. 
~ 44 Bovs love to play."-" Boys love playing."-" I know that thou fear- 
est God."—" Jesus I know, and Paul I know ; but who art thou? (801, &c. ). 

Rule XI.— A preposition governs the objective case ; 
as, 

"Of him, and through him, and to him, are all things: to whom be 
dorv for ever "— "To whom much is given, of him much shall be re- 
quired."— "Come with us and we will do (to) thee good."— " Science they 
do not pretend to."— "Whom did he speak to?" (818, &c). 

Rule XII.— Certain words and phrases should be fol- 
lowed by appropriate prepositions ; as, 

"Confide in "--"dispose o/,"-"adapted to,"--"swerve/rom," &c.(834, &c). 

Rule XIII.— One substantive governs another in the 
possessive, when the latter substantive limits the signi- 
fication of the former ; as, 

"Pompey's pillar."— "Virtue's reward."— " Locke's essays."— "For 
righteousness' sake."—" For conscience' sake."— The duke of Wellington's 
funeral"— "The secretary of state's office."— "Whose pen is this ? —It 
is Johns— it is not mine " (241)— "It came from the stationers. — 
44 Brown, Smith, & Go.'s warehouse" (839, &c). 

Rule XIV.— The subjunctive mood is used in de- 
pendent clauses, when both contingency or doubt, and 
futurity, are expressed; as, 

"Though he slay me yet will I trust in him."— "If he study he will 
improve/— "If he do but touch the hills they shall smoke.' —"See thou 
do it not" (857, &c.). 

Rule XV.— The infinitive mood is governed by verbs, 

nouns, or adjectives ; as, 

44 1 desire to iearn."— "A desire to learn."— "Anxious to learn."— "To 
do °-ood and to communicate, forget not."— "To perform is better than to 
promise."— "Fools who came to scoff, remained to pray.'— "Let us go. 
— " You need not go" (865, &c). 

Rule XVI.— Participles have the construction of 
nouns, adjectives, and verbs ; as, 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 147 

(Noun.) — "Saying is not doing." — u In the keeping of his command- 
ments." — U A forsaking of the truth." — "Avoid doing evil." (Adjectjvk.) 
— "The sword hangs rusting on the wall." — "A bound book." — "The lost 
sheep." (Vekb.) — "Having loved his own, he loved them to the end.' 1 — 
" The men stood speechless, hearing a voice, but seeing no man " (890, &c). 

Rule XVII. — In the use of verbs, and words that in 
point of time relate to each other, the order of time 
must be observed ; as, 

"I have known him man)' years." — "I expected he would come" (not 
"would have come"). — "I expect he will come." — "It would have been 
easy to do it" (not "to have done it"). — "I expected to go" (not "to 
have gone") (908, &c). 

Rule XVIII. — Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and 
other adverbs; as, 

"John speaks distinctly; he is remarkably diligent; and reads very 
correctly." — "Julia sings well." — "The day is far spent." — "Time passes 
swiftly and imperceptibly." — "Where have you been?" — "Whom did you 
see there?"— "When will you return?"— "Soon" (922, &c). 

Rule XIX. — Conjunctions connect words, phrases, 
or sentences ; as, 

"You and he must go ; but I stay at home." — "Honor thy father and 
thy mother." — " He or his brother is to blame." — " They can neither read 
nor write." — " He is slow, but sure." — " While the earth remaineth, seed- 
time and harvest, and cold and heat, and summer and winter, and day 
and night, shall not cease" (944, &c). 

Rule XX. — Interjections have no grammatical con- 
nection with the other words in a sentence ; as, 

"0 ye of little faith!"— "Ah me!"— "0 cruel thou!"— "Envious! of 
David Garrick ? Poh! poh! Pshaw! pshaw!" (970, &c). 

GENERAL RULE. 

In every sentence, the words employed, and the order 
in which they are arranged, should be such as clearly 
and properly to express the idea intended; and, at the 
same time, all the parts of a sentence should corre- 
spond, and a regular • and dependent construction be 
preserved throughout (973). 

ELLIPSIS. 

Rule 1. — An ellipsis, or omission of words, is admis- 
sible, when they can be supplied by the mind with such 



148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

certainty and readiness as not to obscure the sense ; as, 

u We walked by faith, not by sight" (911, &c). 

Rule 2.— An ellipsis is not allowable when it would 
obscure the sentence, weaken its force, or be attended 
with an impropriety (979, &c). 



SUBSTANTIVES IN APPOSITION. 

667, Rule I. — Substantives denoting the same person 
or thing , agree in case (162) ; as — 

" Cicero the orator. 1 ' — u I Patdh&ye written it." — " We, the peo- 
ple of the United States." — u Ye woods and wilds" — " This was 
said to us men" — "The river Thames." — "Jane and Eliza, Mary's 
cousins." — " The chief of the princes, he who defied the enemy," 
&c. — " That was related of Dr. West, him who translated Pindar." 

668. The word annexed is said to be in apposition with the other, and 
is added to express some attribute, description, or appellation, belonging 
to it. The words so related must always be in the same member of the 
sentence — that is, both in the subject, or both in the predicate. A sub- 
stantive predicated of another is not in apposition with it, though denot- 
ing the same thing. 

The substantive in apposition commonly stands last ; sometimes first. 

669. Two or more words forming one complex name, or a name and a 
title prefixed, though really in apposition, are properly declined and parsed 
as one word ; as, " George Washington" — "General Washington 1 s tent." 
In such examples, the sign of the possessive is annexed only to the last 
(848), and sometimes also when the words in apposition do not form a 
complex name ; as, " We arrived at our friend Wilson's plantation." 

For the plural of proper names with titles prefixed, see 161. 

6T0. A noun is sometimes put in apposition with a sentence, and a sen- 
tence or infinitive mood, sometimes in apposition with a noun ; as, " The 
weather forbids walking, a prohibition hurtful to us both." — " The promise, 
that he should be the heir of the world, was given to Abraham." — " De- 
lightful task, to rear the tender thought ! " 867, 4. 

6T1. A plural term is sometimes used in apposition after two or more 
substantives singular, to combine and give them emphasis ; as, " Time, la- 
bor, money, all were lost." Sometimes the same substantive is repeated 
for the sake of emphasis ; as, " Cisterns, broken cisterns" 

672. Distributive words are sometimes put in apposition with a plural 
substantive ; as, " They went each of them on his way" (301). — " They 
all went, some one way, and some another." In the construction of a sen- 
tence, the distributive word is sometimes omitted; as, " They [interroga- 
tive pronouns] do not relate [each] to a preceding noun." 

673. Of this character are such expressions as the following : " They 
stood in each other's way " — that is, they stood each in the other's way. — 
" They love one another" — that is, they love, one (loves) an other (311). 



SYNTAX — A DJECTIYES, 149 

6M« A substantive is sometimes connected with another in a sort of ap- 
position by the word as, meaning in the condition of, in the capacity of $ 
thus, " Cicero, as an orator, was bold — as a soldier, he was timid." But 
here — the reverse of the former case (669) — the substantive in apposition 
with another in the possessive case, or with a possessive pronoun, is with- 
out the sign, while the other has it ; as, " John's reputation as an author 
was great — his fame as an artist still greater." 

675. In designating time and place, instead of a noun in apposition, a 
preposition with its case is often used ; as, " The month of August." — 
" The state of QUo."—" The city of New York." 

Throughout the exercises in syntax — -first, correct the 
errors ; secondly, analyze orally the sentences so cor- 
rected ; thirdly, parse all the words etymologically ; and 
last, parse syntactically the word or words to which the 
rule refers. 

EXERCISES. 

In the following sentences, what words are in apposition, and to what ? 
In what case do they agree ? Give the rule: — 

Religion, the support of adversity, adorns prosperity. — Byron 
the poet, the only son of Captain John Byron, was born in 1788. 
— Coleridge, a remarkable man, and rich imaginative poet, was 
the friend of Wordsworth. — My brother William's estate has 
been sold. 

u And on the palace floor, a lifeless corse she lay." 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

As the nominative and the objective case in nouns are alike in English, 
there is no liability to error under this rule, except in the case of pronouns. 

Please give that book to my brother William, he who stands 
by the window. — The gentleman has arrived, him whom I men- 
tioned before. — Do you speak so to me, I who have so often 
befriended you ? — I speak of Virgil, he who wrote the JEneid. 



AN ADJECTIVE WITH A SUBSTANTIVE. 

676. Rule II. — 1. An adjective or participle qualifies 
the substantive to which it belongs (196) ; as, "A good 
man." 

2. Adjectives denoting one, qualify nouns in the sin- 



150 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

gulai': adjectives denoting more than one, qualify nouns 
in the plural ; as, " TAis man." — " These men." — "Six 
feet." 

677. Adjectives denoting one are the ordinals first, second, thirds 
&c. (206), last — this, that — one, each, every, either, neither, much, 
and its comparative more — all, denoting quantity, enough, whole. 

678. When any of these is joined to a plural noun, the whole is re- 
garded as one aggregate; as, "The first two weeks" — "Every ten miles" 
— " The last/owr lines " — "The last days rf summer," &c. But the verb 
after such subjects is usually plural. 

679. In such expressions, the cardinal number, if small may precede 
the words first and last, but not the other cardinals ; as, "The two first 
weeks" — " The four Zas£ lines" (705-3), meaning the two weeks at the 
beginning, or preceding all the rest — the four lines at the end, or succeeding 
all the rest. 

680. Two or more adjectives, expressing qualities that belong to differ- 
ent objects of the same name, and that name expressed only with the last, 
should have an article before each ; as, " The red and the white rose " — 
that is, two roses, the one red, and the other white. So, " The first and 
the second page " — " The first and the second verse " — " The Old and the 
New World." It has become common, however, even with good writers, 
to drop the second article, and change the singular into the plural! to ex- 
press the same idea ; thus, " The first and second pages " — " The first and 
second verses," &c. This mode of expression, though incorrect in itself, 
is less stiff and formal than the other. (See Appendix IX.) When adjec- 
tives denoting one are connected by or, nor, &c, the noun must be singular. 

681* Adjectives denoting more than one, are the following, viz. — all car- 
dinal numbers above one ; as, tivo, three, &c. — few, many, with its compara- 
tive more — all, denoting number, both, several, and enow. Enow is nearly 
obsolete. 

682. Adjectives without a substantive expressed are often used as 
nouns ; as,' u The rich and the poor meet together " (201). This is espe- 
cially common with all adjective pronouns except the possessive, and the 
distributive every ; as, " Of books, some are good, some are bad." — u All 
things come alike to all " (289). 

683. Adjectives are sometimes used indefinitely after an infinitive or 
participle, without reference to any particular substantive, to express an 
abstract idea ; as, "To be good is to be happy"—" Being good is better 
than being great." 

684. When an adjective is a predicate (621), it must qualify its sub- 
stantive in the subject ; as, " God is good, he is also just" — " To do good 
to others is profitable to ourselves." — " That men should lie, is base" 

685. An adjective in the predicate sometimes qualifies the subject, not 
considered simply as a substantive, but as a substantive affected by the 
action of the connecting verb, which, in that case, may be regarded as a 
strengthened or modified copula (601); as, "That type stands low"— 
" This fruit tastes bitter." — " The wind blows cold." — u The door is painted 



SYNTAX — ADJECTIVES. 151 

green." — u John grows tall"— " Milk turns sour." — " Clay burns white? 
— " Down feels soft." 

686. Adjectives thus used are sometimes, though improperly, called 
adverbial adjectives. As the adverb is sometimes used improperly instead 
of the adjective in such expressions, the distinction should be carefully 
marked. Thus — 

The adverb expresses the manner of the act 
The adjective expresses the condition, or state of the subject. 
Hence, when the meaning intended can be expressed by the corresponding 
adjunct (541), the adverb should be used; as, " The stream flows rapidly" 
(in a rapid manner). Here the adverb rapidly modifies the verb flows. 
But when the meaning can be expressed nearly by substituting the verb 
to be or to become as a copula, the adjective should be used ; as, u The 
stream grows [becomes] rapid." This is further illustrated by the follow- 
ing examples, viz. : — 

ADJECTIVES. ADVERBS. 

John grows [becomes] old. John grows rapidly [in a rapid manner.] 
She looks [is] cold. She looks coldly [in a cold manner] on him. 

He feels [is] warm. He feels warmly [in a warm manner] the insult. 

The eagle flies [is] high. The eagle flies swiftly [in a swift manner.] 
The apple tastes [is] sweet. Mary sings sweetly [in a sweet manner.] 

687. Adjectives should not be used as adverbs ; thus, " miserable 
poor," should be, " miserably poor "— " sings elegant," should be, 
" sings elegantly ." So also, adverbs should not be used as adjec- 
tives (925) ; thus, " He arrived safely," should be, " He arrived 

688. This here, thai there, them books, are vulgarisms, for this, that, 
those books. 

689. An adjective sometimes qualifies an adjective and noun together 
as one compound term; as, "A venerable old man"— u The best black 
tea." 

690. Sometimes an adjective modifies the meaning of another adjec- 
tive ; as, "red-hot iron "— " a bright-red color." 

691. Several adjectives frequently qualify the same substantive; as, 
"A large, strong ) black horse." 

This, that — these, those. 

692. When two or more objects are contrasted, this refers to the 
last-mentioned, that to the first ; as, " Virtue and vice are opposite 
qualities ; that ennobles the mind, this debases it." 

693. Former and latter are used in the same way (304). So also the 
one, the other, referring to words in the singular or plural (307). 

694. When no contrast is expressed, this refers to a thing near, or just 
mentioned, and that, to a thing more remote, or formerly mentioned. 

CONSTRUCTION OF COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES. 

695. When one object is compared with one other of the same 
class, or with more than one of a different class, individually, or in 



152 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the aggregate, the comparative is used ; as, "James is the weaker of 
the two " — " He is taller than his father " — " He is taller than any 
of his brothers." 

696. Sometimes however, when two objects of the same class are com- 
pared, the superlative is used, being thought to be less stiff and formal ; 
as, " James is the tveakest of the two. 

697. When one object is compared with more than one of the same 
class, the superlative is used, and commonly has the prefixed (713) ; 
as, " John is the tallest amongst us " — " He is the oest scholar in a 
class of ten " — " He is the most diligent of them all." 

698. In the use of the comparative and superlative, when more than 
two objects are compared, the following distinction should be carefully 
observed, viz. : — 

699. When the comparative is used, the latter term of comparison 
must always exclude the former ; thus, u Eve was fairer than any of her 
daughters." — " Russia is larger than any other country in Europe." — 
"China has a greater population than any nation of Europe," or, "than 
any other nation on the globe." Thus used, the comparative requires 
than after it (963-2). 

700. When the superlative is used, the latter term of comparison must 
always include the former ; as, " Russia is the largest country in Europe." 
— " China has the greatest population of any nation on the globe." 

701. Double comparatives and superlatives are improper ; thus, 
"James is more taller than John " — omit more — " He is the most 

wisest of the three " — omit most 

702. The double comparative lesser, however, is sanctioned by good 
authority; as, "Lesser Asia" — "Every lesser thing." — JST. Y. Review. — 
"Like lesser streams." — Coleridge. 

703. Adjectives, not admitting comparison (223), should not be com- 
pared, nor connected with comparative words, such as so, as, and the like. 
Thus, more universal, so universal, as universal, should be more general, 
so general, as general ; and so of similar words. As exceptions see 224. 

POSITION OF ADJECTIVES. 
y 

704. An adjective is commonly placed before its substantive ; as, 

"A good man " — "A virtuous woman." 

1. Adjectives should be placed as near as possible to their substantives, 
and so that it may be certain to what noun they belong ; thus, "A new 
pair of shoes" — "A fine field of corn " — " A good glass of wine," should 
be, "A pair of new shoes " — " A field of fine corn " — " A glass of good 
wine " — because the adjectives qualify shoes, corn, wine, and not pair, field, 
glass. When ambiguity can not otherwise be avoided, the use of the 
hyphen may be resorted to with advantage ; thus, "A good-mail's coat" 
— " A good maris-coat." 

2. When an adjective qualifies two or more substantives, connected by 
and; it is usually expressed before the first, and understood to the rest ; 
as, "A man of great loisdom and moderation? 



SYNTAX— ADJECTIVES. 153 

3. It has been disputed whether the numerals, two, three, four, &c, 
should be placed before the words first and last, or after them, when used 
to indicate the beginning and the end of a series. On this point, with 
small numbers, usage is nearly equally divided ; and, as the matter now 
stands, in some cases the one form seems to be preferable, and in some, 
the other. In this construction, as in some others which involve no im- 
propriety, euphony and taste seem to govern. This much is certain — 
neither form can be justly condemned, on the ground of either authority 
or propriety. — See Appendix X. p. 256. 

705. An adjective is placed after its substantive — 

1. Generally when it qualifies a pronoun ; as, "We saw him faint and 

weary" 

2. When other words depend on the adjective ; as, "A man sick of the 

palsy " — " A pole ten feet long." 

3. When the quality results from the action expressed by a verb ; as, 

" Extravagance makes a man poor " — " Yirtue makes a poor 
man happy" 

4. When the adjective is predicated of the substantive; as, "God is 

good" — " We are happy "—"He who is good is happy " — " He 
looks feeble " — " To play is pleasant" — " That he shoidd fail 
is strange." 
708. In many cases, the adjective may stand either before or after its 
substantive, and sometimes — especially in poetry, and in connection with 
an infinitive or participle — at a considerable distance from it. In all these, 
the variety is so great that no rules can provide for them. Care, however, 
should be taken to place the adjective where its relation to the substan- 
tive will be clear and natural, and its meaning effective. 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

Correct the errors in the following sentences, and give a reason far the 
change ; — 

These kind of books can hardly be got. — I have not been 
from home this ten days. — We walked two mile in half an hour. 
— I ordered six ton of coal, and these makes the third that has 
been delivered. — This lake is six fathom deep. — The garden 
wall is five rod long ; I measured it with a ten-foot pole. — Twen- 
ty heads of cattle passed along the road. — It is said that a fleet 
of six sails has just entered the bay. — That three pair of gloves 
cost twelve shilling. — (159-2) A man who is prudent and in- 
dustrious, will, by that means, increase his fortune. — Charles 
formed expensive habits, and by those means became poor. — If 
you are fond of those sort of things you may have them. — (680) 
There was a blot on the first or second pages. — The first and 
second verse are better than the third and fourth. 

(687) Come quick and do not hinder us. — Time passes swift, 
though it appears to move slow. — We got home safely before 
7* 



154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

dark, and found our friends sitting comfortably around the fire. 
— The boat glides smooth over the lake. — (685) Magnesia feels 
smoothly. — Open the door widely. — The door is painted greenly. 

(688) Hand me that there pen, for this here one is the worst 
of all. — Them books were sold for a lesser price than they cost. 

(692) " For beast and bird ; 
These to their grassy couch, those to their nests, repair." 
"Night's shadows hence, from thence the morning's shine; 
That bright, this dark, this earthly, that divine." 

(694) That very subject which we are now discussing is still 
involved in mystery.— This vessel, of which you spoke yester- 
day, sailed in the evening. 

(698-700) That merchant is the wealthiest of all his neigh- 
bors. — China has a greater population than any nation on earth. 
— That ship is larger than any of its class. — There is more gold 
in California than in any part of North America. — The birds of 
Brazil are more beautiful than any in South America. Phila- 
delphia is the most regular of any city in Europe. — Israel loved 
Joseph more than all his children. — Solomon was wiser than 
any of the ancient kings. 

(701, 702) A more worthier man you can not find. — The 
nightingale's voice is the most sweetest in the grove. — A worser 
evil yet awaits us. — The rumor has not spread so universally as 
we supposed. — Draw that line more perpendicular. — This figure 
is a more perfect circle than that is. — He is far from being so 
perfect as he thinks he is. 



THE ARTICLE AND ITS NOUN. 

707 # Rule III. — 1. The article a or an is put before 
common nouns in the singular number when used indef- 
initely (185) ; as, "A man " — "An apple ; " that is, 
"any man"— "any apple" (186, 187). 

2. The article the is put before common nouns, either 
singular or plural, when used definitely (191) ; as, 
" The sun rises "— " The city of New York." 

[See Etymology of the Article 183.] 
708. A common noun, in the singular number, without an article 
or limiting word, is usually taken in its widest sense ; as, u Man is 
mortal " — "Anger is a short madness." 



SYNTAX — ARTICLE. 155 

T09. The is sometimes used before a singular noun, to particularize a 
species or class, without specifying any individual under it ; as, the oak, 
the rose, the horse, the raven, meaning not any particular oak, rose, horse, 
or raven, but the class, so called, in a general sense. In such cases, wheth- 
er the noun is used to denote a class or an individual, can be determined 
only by the sense, as in the following examples : " The oak produces 
acorns" — The oak was struck by lightning." — u The horse is a noble ani- 
mal " — " The horse ran away." — " The lion shall eat straw like the ox" — 
44 The lion tore the ox in pieces." — u The night is the time for repose " — 
* 4 The night was dark." 

710. Every article belongs to a noun, expressed or understood, 
except as in 714 and 715. 

Til. When several nouns are connected in the same construction, the 
article is commonly expressed with the first, and understood to the rest; 
as, 44 The men, women, and children are expected." But when emphasis, or 
a different form of the article is required, the article is prefixed ; as, " The 
men, the women, and the children, are expected" — " Ahorse and tm ass." 

712. But when several nouns in the same construction are disjunctively 
connected, the article must be repeated ; as, " The men, or the women, 
or the children, are expected." 

713. The is commonly put before an adjective used as a noun ; as, 
44 The righteous is more excellent than his neighbor." Also before ad- 
jectives in the superlative degree, when comparison is implied (213) ; as, 
44 Gold is the most precious of the metals." But when comparison is not 
implied, the superlative is either without an article, or has a or an preced- 
ing it ; as, " A most excellent man." 

714. The is sometimes put intensively before adjectives and adverbs in 
the comparative degree ; as, u The higher the mountain, the colder its 
top" — " The faster he goes, the sooner he stops." Thus used it performs 
the function of an adverb. 

715. An adjective placed after its noun as an epithet, commonly has 
the article the before it ; as, " Alexander the Great"—" Charles the Fifth" 

This may be considered as inverted for "The great Alexander." "The 
fifth Charles ; " or, by ellipsis, for " Alexander, the great [conqueror]," 
44 Charles, the fifth [emperor of the name]." 

716. A or an is sometimes put before the adjectives few, hundred, 
thousand, followed by a plural noun ; as, 44 A few men " — " A hundred 
acres" — "A thousand miles." In such cases, the adjective and noun 
may be considered as a compound term, expressing one aggregate, and 
having the construction of a collective noun (790). Or the adjective may 
be regarded as a collective noun (207), and the noun following governed 
by of understood ; as, "A few [of] men" — "A hundred [of] acres," 
&c. This is evidently the construction of larger numbers ; thus, we never 
say, " A million dollars," but, " A million of dollars." 

717. When two or more adjectives belong to the same noun, the article of 
the noun is put with the first adjective, but not with the rest ; as, "A red 
and white rose," that is, one rose, partly red and partly white. But, 

718. When two or more adjectives belong each to & different object of 
the same name, the article of the noun is put with each adjective ; as, u \ 



156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

red and a white rose "==" A red rose and a white rose," that is, two roses, 
one red and the other white. 

719. The same remark applies to the demonstrative that; as, "That 
great and good man"=: u That great and that good man." 

720. So also when two or more epithets follow a noun, if both desig- 
nate the same person, the article precedes the first only. If they desig- 
nate different persons, the article must precede each ; thus, " Johnson, the 
bookseller and stationer," means one man, who is both a bookseller and 
a stationer ; but, " Johnson the bookseller, and the stationer," means two 
men, one a bookseller, named Johnson, and the other a stationer, not 
named. 

721. When two nouns after a word implying comparison, refer to the 
same person or thing, the last must want the article ; as, "He is a better 
soldier than statesman." But when they refer to different persons, the 
last must have the article ; as, " He is a better soldier than a statesman 
[would be]." 

722. The article a before the adjectives few and little, renders the mean- 
ing positive ; as, "A few men can do that " — " He deserves a little credit." 
But without the article the meaning is negative; as, " Few men can do 
that" — "He deserves little credit." 

723. In the translation of the Scriptures, and some other writings of 
that time, the is often used before which ; as, " That worthy name by the 
which ye are called" — " The which when I had seen." — Bunyan. 

724. The article is generally omitted before proper names, abstract nouns, 
and names of virtues, vices, arts, scie7ices, &c, when not restricted, and 
such other nouns as are of themselves so manifestly definite as not to re- 
quire it; as, " Christmas is in December" — "Logic and mathematics are 
important studies" — " Truth is mighty." Still certain proper names, and 
names used in a certain way, have the article prefixed ; as, " The Alps" 
— " The Rhine "— " The Azores "— " The immortal Washington "— " He 
was a Johnson, of the family of the Johnsons, in England." 

POSITION OF THE ARTICLE. 

725. The article is commonly placed before its noun ; as, "A man n 
—"The man:' 

726. If the noun is qualified by an adjective before it, the article pre- 
cedes the adjective ; as, " A good man" 

727. But the article follows the adjectives, all, such, many, what, both ; 
and all adjectives preceded by too, so, as, or how ; as, "All the men" — 
" Such a man " — " Many a man " — " What a man " — " Both the men " — 
" Too great a man" — "So great a man" — "As great a man" — "How 
great a man." 

728. When the adjective follows the noun, not as an epithet, the article 
remains before the noun, and the adjective is without it ; as, " A man 
destitute of principle should not be trusted." For an adjective as an epi- 
thet, see (715) above. 

Note. — The use of the article is so varied, that the best general rule is 
to study what the sense requires, both as to its proper use and position. 



S YNTA X — ARTICLE. 157 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

Change, or omit, or insert the article, where necessary, and give a rea- 
son for so doing : — 

(707-1 and 2) A country around New York is beautiful in a 
spring. — A life of the modern soldier is ill represented by he- 
roic fiction. — Earth existed at first in the state of chaos. — An 
age of chivalry is gone. — A crowd at the door was so great that 
we could not enter. — The large number of men was present. 

(708) The fire, the air, the earth, and the water, are four 
elements of the philosophers. — Reason was given to a man to 
control his passions. — A man was made to mourn. — The gold is 
corrupting. — The silver is a precious metal. 

(709) Horse is a noble animal. — A lion is generous, a cat is 
treacherous, a dog is faithful. — A horse-leech cries, " Give, 
give," and a grave is never satisfied. — The war has means of 
destruction more dreadful than a cannon or a sword. 

(712) Neither the man nor boy was to blame. — -A man may 
be a mechanic, or farmer, or lawyer, and be useful and re- 
spected ; but idler or spendthrift can never be either. 

(713) We should ever pay attention to graceful and becoming. 
— The memory of just is blessed ; but the name of wicked shall 
rot. — Best men are often those who say least. — James is. a man 
of the most brilliant talents. — Keep good and throw bad away. 

(715) Herod Great was distinguished for his cruelty ; Pliny 
younger for gentleness and benignity. — Peter Hermit proposed 
his plan for recovering Jerusalem to Pope Martin II. — The 
father of William Cowper, poet, was chaplain to George II. 

(717) A red and a white flag was the only one displayed 
from the tower. — A beautiful stream flows between the old and 
new mansion. — A hot and cold spring were found in the same 
neighborhood. — The young and old man seem to be on good 
terms. — The first and second book are difficult. — Thomson the 
watchmaker and the jeweler made one of the party. 

(721) A man may be a better soldier than a logician.— There 
is much truth in the saying that fire is a better servant than a 
master. — He is not so good a poet as an historian. 

(722) It is always necessary to pay little attention to business. 
— A little respect should be paid to those who deserve none. — 
Let the damsel abide with us few days. — Are not my days a 
few ? — A few men of his age enjoy so good health. 



158 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

A PRONOUN AND ITS ANTECEDENT. 

729t Rule IV. — Pronouns agree with the words for 
which they stand, in gender, number, and person ; as, 
"All that a man hath will he give for his life " — "A tree 
is known by its fruit." 

SPECIAL RULES. 
730. Rule 1, — When a pronoun refers to two or more words taken 
together, it becomes plural ; and, if they are of different persons, pre- 
fers the first person to the second, and the second to the third ; as, "He 
and she did their duty " "John and you and / will do our duty." 

Rule 2. — When a pronoun refers to two or more words in the sin- 
gular taken separately, or to one of them exclusively, it must be sin- 
gular ; as, "A clock or a watch moves merely as it is moved." 

Rule 3. — But if either of the words referred to isplural, thepro- 
noun must be plural also ; as, " Neither he nor they trouble them-. 
seUesP Distributives are always of the third person singular (301). 

731. Nouns are taken together when connected by and — sepa- 
rately when connected by or or nor, as above ; also after each, every, 
no, though connected by and ; as, " Each book and each paper is in 
its place." 

732. When singular nouns of different genders are taken separately, 
they can not be represented by a pronoun, for want of a singular pronoun, 
common gender, except by a clumsy repetition of pronouns of the cor- 
responding genders; thus, "If any man or woman shall violate his or her 
pledge, he or she shall pay a fine." The use of the plural pronoun in such 
cases, though sometimes used, is improper; as, " If any man or woman 
shall violate their pledge," &c. 

733. Pronouns referring to singular nouns or other words, of the com- 
mon gender (126), taken in a general sense, are commonly masculine ; as, 
u A parent should love his child." — "Every person has his faults." — "No 
one should commend himself." The want of a singular personal pronoun, 
common gender, is felt also in this construction. 

734. A pronoun referring to a collective noun in the singular, ex- 
pressing many as one whole, should be in the neuter singular ; but 
when the noun expresses many as individuals, the pronoun should 
be plural ; as, " The army proceeded on its march." — u The court 
were divided in their opinion." 

735. A singular noun after the phrase, "many a," may take a pronoun 
in the plural, but never in the same clause ; as — 

" In Hawick twinkled many 'a light, 
Behind him soon they set in night."— W. Scott. 



SYNTAX — PRONOUNS. 159 

736. The personal pronoun is sometimes used at the beginning of a 
sentence, instead of the word person or persons ; as, "He who" — "They 
who" — also "1'hose who" — for " The persons who." 

737. Pronouns representing nouns personified (129), take the gender 
of the noun as a person; as, "Night, sable goddess, from her ebon throne." 
But pronouns representing nouns taken metaphorically (1046, 3) agree 
with them in their literal sense ; as, u Pitt was the pillar which in its 
strength upheld the state." 

738. It is improper in the progress of a sentence to denote the same 
person by pronouns of different numbers ; as, " I labored long to make 
thee happy, and now you reward me by ingratitude." It should be either 
u to make you happy," or u thou rewardest," (245). 

739. In the use of pronouns, when it would, be uncertain to which of 
two or more antecedent words (229) a pronoun refers, the ambiguity may 
be avoided by repeating the noun, instead of using the pronoun, or by 
changing the form of the sentence, thus, u When we see the beautiful 
variety of color in the rainbow, we are led to consider its cause " — better 
" the cause of that variety. 1 ' 

POSITION OF PRONOUNS. 

740. The first and the second personal pronoun commonly stand instead 
of nouns implied, but not expressed. Possessive pronouns, and the pro- 
nouns of the third person, are commonly placed after their antecedents 
(229) ; but sometimes this order, especially in poetry, is reversed. 

741. When words of different persons come together, the usual order 
of arrangement, in English, is to place the second person before the third, 
and the first person last ; as, "You and he and /are sent for." — " This 
matter concerns you or him or me." 

In connection with these rules and observations, see also the observa- 
tions on gender (128-134), on number (155-160), and on personal pro- 
nouns (240-252). 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

In each sentence, state the antecedent words to which the pronouns re- 
fer ; change the pronouns which are wrong, and give a reason for the 
change: — 

(729) A person's success in life depends on their exertions ; 
if they shall aim at nothing, they shall certainly achieve nothing. 
— Extremes are not in its nature favorable to happiness. — A 
man's recollections of the past regulate their anticipations of the 
future. — Let every boy answer for themselves. — Each of us had 
more than we wanted. — Every one of you should attend to your 
own business (301). 

(730-1) Discontent and sorrow manifested itself in his coun- 
tenance. — Both cold and heat have its extremes. — You and your 
friend should take care of themselves. — You and I must be dil- 
igent in your studies. 



160 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

(730-2) John or James will favor us with their company. — 
One or other must relinquish their claim. — Neither wealth nor 
honor confers happiness on their votaries. — (731) Every plant 
and every flower proclaims their Maker's praise. — Each day 
and each hour brings their changes. — Poverty and wealth have 
each their own temptations.— -No thought, no word, no action, 
however secret, can escape in the judgment, whether they be 
good or evil. 

(732) Let every man and every woman strive to do their 
best. — If any boy or girl shall neglect her duty, they shall for- 
feit their place. — No lady or gentleman would do a thing so un- 
worthy of them. 

(733) One should not think too highly of themselves. — A 
teacher should always consult the interest of her pupils. — A 
parent's care for her children is not always requited. — Every one 
should consider their own frailties. — Let each esteem others bet- 
ter than herself. 

(734) The assembly held their meetings in the evening. — 
The court, in their wisdom, decided otherwise. — The regiment 
was greatly reduced in their number.- — Society is not always 
answerable for the conduct of their members.— The committee 
were divided in its opinions. — The public are informed that its 
interests are secured. 

(737) The earth is my mother ; I will recline on its bosom. 
— That freedom, in its fearless flight, may here announce its glo- 
rious reign. — Policy keeps coining truth in its mints, such truth 
as it can tolerate, and every die, except its own, it breaks and 
casts away. — As time advances, it leaves behind him the traces 
of its flight. 

(738) Though you are great, yet consider thou art a man. — 
Care for thyself, if you would have others to care for you. — If 
thou wert not my superior, I would reprove you. — If thou for- 
get thy friend, can you expect that your friend will remember 
thee ? 

(739) One man may do a kindness to another, though he is 
his enemy. — John gave his friend a present which he highly 
valued. 

(741) I and my father were invited. — An invitation was sent 
to me and George. — You and I and James were to be of the 
party ; but neither I nor you nor he can go. 



SYNTAX — RELATIVE. 161 

THE RELATIVE AND ITS ANTECEDENT. 

742, Eule V. — The relative agrees tvith its antecedent 
in number and person; as, "Thou ivho speakest." — 
"The book ivhich was lost." 

[See Etymology, 255, &e.] 

743. The number of the relative can be determined only from the 
number of the antecedent. 

744. Who is applied to persons or tilings personified (129) ; as 
u The man who " — " The fox who had never seen a lion." 

745. Which is applied to things and inferior animals — sometimes 
to children — to collective nouns in the singular, implying unity — 
and also to persons in asking questions. 

746. In the translation of the Bible, which is applied to persons ; as, 
14 Our Father which art in heaven." 

747. Which applies to a noun denoting a person, when the character, 
or the name merely as a word, is referred to ; as, " He is a good writer, 
which is all he professes to be." — "That was the work of Herod, which is 
but another name for cruelty." 

748. That, as a relative, is used instead of who or which — 

1. After adjectives in the superlative degree — after the words very, 

same, and all — often after no, some, and any — and generally in 
restrictive clauses (26S). 

2. When the antecedent includes both persons and things ; as, "The 

man and the horse that we saw." 

3. After the interrogative who, and often after the personal pronouns ; 

as, "Who that knew him could think so?" — "1 that speak in 
righteousness." 

4. Generally when the propriety of who or which is doubtful ; as, "The 

little child that was placed in the midst." 

749. The relatives who or which and that should not be mixed in a 
series of relative clauses having the same antecedent. Thus it is improp- 
er to say, " The man that met us and whom we saw." It should be, "who 
met us," or " that we saw." 

750. The relative refers sometimes to the idea expressed by an adjec- 
tive, sometimes to the infinitive. But this construction is rare. See ex- 
amples (256). 

751. The relative in the objective case is often omitted; as, "Here is 
the book I promised you." The relative in the nominative case is hardly 
ever omitted except in poetry ; as — 

"In this, His God — directs, in that, 'tis man." 

752. The antecedent is omitted before what (266), and generally before 
the compound relatives (273). It is sometimes understood, especially in 
poetry ; as — 

" [He] who lives to nature, rarely can be poor." 



162 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

753. JVIiat should not be used for the conjunction that. Thus, " I can 
not believe but what it is so," should be, " but that it is so." Also the 
demonstrative that should not be used for the relative what; as, "We 
speak that we do know," better, " what we do know." 

POSITION OF THE RELATIVE. 

751. The relative is generally placed after its antecedent. 

755. To prevent ambiguity, the relative should be placed as near its 
antecedent as possible, and so that there can be no uncertainty as to what 
word it refers. 

756. In most instances, the sense will be a sufficient guide in this mat-- 
ter ; thus, " They removed their wives and children in wagons covered 
with the skins of animals, which formed their simple habitations." Here 
the sense only can determine to which of the three words, wagons, skins, 
or animals, the relative which refers. But — 

757. When the antecedent can not be determined by the sense, it should 
be determined by the position of the relative, which, as a general rule, 
should belong to the nearest antecedent. Thus — 

" We walked from the house to the barn ) ■, . T , , , , , ,. 

"We walked to the barn from the house \ whwh had been erected - 
Here the relative which, as determined by its position, refers, in the first 
sentence, to barn, and in the second, to house. 

758. So also when the antecedents denote the same object, the one be- 
ing in the subject and the other, in the predicate, the relative takes the 
person of the one next it; as, " I am the man tvho commands you " — not 
44 command you." If the relative refer to 1, the words should be arranged, 
"I who command you am the man." Hence — 

759. A relative clause which modifies the subject should not be placed 
in the predicate ; thus, " He should not keep a horse that can not ride," 
should be, " He that can not ride, should not keep a horse." 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

In the following sentences, which are the relatives ? What is the 
antecedent to which each refers ? Correct those which are wrong, and 
give the rule, or the reason for the change : — 

(744) Those which seek wisdom will certainly find her. — This 
is the friend which I love. — (745) That is the vice whom I 
hate. — The tiger is a beast of prey who destroys without pity. 
— The court who gives currency to such manners should be ex- 
emplary. — The nations who have the best rulers are happy. — 
Your friend is one of the committee who was appointed yester- 
day. — The family with whom I lived has left the city. — (747) 
His father set him up as a merchant, who was what he desired 
to be. — If you intend to be a teacher, who you can not be with- 
out learning, you must study. 



SYNTAX — NOMINATIVE. 163 

(748) It is the best situation which can be got. — That man 
was the first who entered. — This is the same horse which we 
saw yesterday. — Solomon was the wisest king whom the world 
ever saw. — The lady and the lapdog, which we saw at the win- 
dow, have disappeared. — I who speak unto you am he. — No 
man who respects himself would do so mean an action. 

(749) O Thou who hast preserved us, and that wilt still pre- 
serve us! — The man whom we met to-day, and that was at our 
house yesterday, is the same — Thou that art, and who wast, 
and that art to come ! 

(752) I have sent everything what you ordered. — All who- 
soever came were made welcome. — Everything whatsoever ye 
would that men should do to you, do ye even so to them. — He 
whoever steals my purse steals trash. — (753) I can not believe 
but what you have been sick. — It is not impossible but what you 
are mistaken. 

(755) The king dismissed his minister without inquiry, who 
had never before committed so unjust an action. 

(759) He needs no spectacles that can not see, nor boots that 
can not walk. — Those must not expect the sympathy of the dili- 
gent, who spend their time in idleness. 



THE SUBJECT NOMINATIVE. 

760. Rule YI. — The subject of a finite verb is put in 
the nominative ; as, "/am" — "Thou art" — "He is" — 
" They are"— " Time flies"— " The letter is written." 

761. A finite verb is a verb in the indicative, potential, subjunctive, or 
imperative mood. It is called finite, because in these parts it is limited 
by person and number. In the infinitive and participles, it is not so 
limited. 

782. The subject of a finite verb (315) may be a noun, a pronoun, an 
infinitive mood (394), a participle used as a noun (462), or a clause of a 
sentence (636). All these, when the subject of the verb, are regarded as 
substantives in the nominative (109 and 867). 

763. Every nominative, not absolute (7 69), or in appositio?i (668), or in 
the predicate (796), is the subject of a verb, expressed or understood. 

764. The following sentence is wrong, because the nominative whoh&s 
no verb to which it is the nominative, viz. : u These evils were caused by 
Cataline, who, if he had been punished, the republic would not have been 
exposed to so great dangers." Better — "If Catiline, by wJvom these evils 
were caused, had been punished," &c. Hence — 



164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

765» It is improper to use both a noun and its pronoun as the nomina- 
tive to the same verb ; thus, " The king he is just," should be, u The king 
is just." Except when the compound pronouns are added to the subject 
for the sake of emphasis (249) ; as, " The king himself has come." 

766. The nominative, especially in the answer to a question, and after 
than or as, often has the verb understood ; as, "Who said so?" — "He 
[said so]." — " James is taller than I [am] ; but not so tall as yon [are]." 

POSITION OF THE SUBJECT. 

767, The subject is commonly placed before the verb. But in impera- 
tive or interrogative sentences, and in sentences inserted for the sake of 
emphasis or euphony, the subject is often placed after the verb ; as, " Go 
thou:'— "Did he go?"— "May you be happy !"—" Were /he." — 
"Neither did they."—" Said /."—"There was a man? &c. 

Under this rule there is liability to error only in the use of pronouns, 
and in leaving a nominative without its verb. 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

Which nouns or pronouns in the following sentences are the subject of 
a verb ? If not in the proper case, change them, and give the rule, or 
reason for the changes : — 

(760) Him and me are of the same age. — Suppose you and 
me go. — Them are excellent. — Whom do you think has arrived ? 
— Them that seek wisdom will find it. — You and us enjoy many 
privileges. 

(766) John is older than me. — You are as tall as her. — Who 
has a knife? Me.— Who came in? Her and him. — You can 
write as well as me. — That is the boy whom we think deserves 
the prize. 

(765) Virtue, however it may be neglected for a time, yet 
men are so constituted as to respect genuine merit. 



THE NOMINATIVE ABSOLUTE OR INDEPENDENT. 

768, Rule VII. — A substantive whose case depends on 
no other word, is put in the nominative absolute. 

Note. — The nominative under this rule, is usually called the nominative 
absolute or independent : because, in English, though always in the form 
of the nominative, yet it has no grammatical dependence on any word 
in the sentence. This occurs in all examples under the following — 

SPECIAL RULES. 

769. Rule 1. — A substantive with a participle, whose case depends 
on no other word, is put in the nominative ; as, "He being gone only 
two remain." 



SYNTAX — NOMINATIVE. 165 

770. In this construction, the substantive is sometimes understood ; as, 
" His conduct, viewing it even favorably, can not be commended ; " that 
is, u we [a persou] viewing it, &c." 

771. Sometimes being and having been are omitted; as, " Her wheel 
[being] at rest" — " He destroyed or won" &c, that is, u He having been 
destroyed or won" &c. — " This said," that is, " This being said." 

772. In this construction, the substantive with the participle is used to 
express an assumed fact in an abbreviated form, and is equivalent to a 
dependent clause, connected by when, while, if, since, because, &c. (650); 
as, "He having gone, his brother returned; "= u Since or because he went, 
his brother returned." 

773. Rule 2. — A person or thing addressed,, without a verb or gov* 
erning word, is put in the nominative ; as, " I remain, dear sir, 
yours truly" — "Plato, thou reasonest well." 

774. Rule 3. — A substantive, unconnected in mere exclamation, is 
put in the nominative ; as, "0, the times ! 0, the manners ! " 

775. Rule 4. — A substantive, used by pleonasm (1044, 2) before 
an affirmation, is put in the nominative ; as, " The boy, oh! where 
was he ?" — " Youv fathers, where are they? — the prophets, do they 
live forever ? " 

Under this rule, a mistake can be made only in the case of pronouns. 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

1 Point out the noun or pronoun whose case depends on no other word 
— put it in the case required by the rule, and give the special rule re- 
quiring it. 

Me being absent, the business was neglected. — He made as 
wise proverbs as any body, him only excepted. — All enjoyed 
themselves very much, us excepted. — Whom being dead, we 
shall come. 

Whose gray top 
Shall tremble, him descending. 
The bleating sheep with my complaints agree ; 
Them parched with heat, and me inflamed by thee. 
Her quick relapsing to her former state. 
Then all thy gifts and graces we display, 
Thee, only thee, directing all our way. 



THE VERB AND ITS NOMINATIVE. 

776, Rule VIII. — A verb agrees with its nominative in 
number and person ; as, "Iread" " Thou reddest" " He 
reads" " We read" &c. 



166 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

[Respecting the nominative or subject, see (493). This rule, and the 
special rules under it, apply to an infinitive mood or clause of a sentence, 
when the subject of a verb (762), as well as to nouns and pronouns.] 

Remark. — Impersonal verbs (520) are always in the third person singu- 
lar; as, "It hails" "it rains" &c. Such expressions as " it appears" "it 
seems" " it happens" and the like, sometimes called impersonal verbs, 
are really personal, having for their subject an infinitive mood or sub- 
stantive phrase following, to which "it n preceding refers ; as, "It appears 
that the river is rising." — "It seems to be so." See 246, 4. So also, in 
the expressions as follows, as concerns, as appears, and the like, the verb 
is not impersonal ; but, whether singular or plural, refers to a subject 
understood ; as, " The case was as follows" i. e., as it here follows : "The 
conditions were as follow" i. e., were as they here follow, or as those 
which follow. 

SPECIAL RULES. 

777. Rule 1. — A singular noun used in a plural sense, has a verb 
in the plural ; as, " Ten sail are in sight" (160). 

778. Rule 2. — Two or more substantives, singular, taken together, 
have a verb in the plural ; as, u James and John are here." 

779. Substantives taken together are connected by and, expressed or 
understood (965), as in the example above. 

780. A singular nominative and an objective, connected by with, some- 
times have a plural verb ; as, " The ship with the crew were lost." This 
construction is incorrect, and should not be imitated. A mere adjunct 
of a substantive does not change its number or construction. Either, 
then, the verb should be singular, " The ship with the crew was lost," or, 
if the second substantive is considered as belonging to the subject, it 
should be connected hy and; as, "The ship and the crew were lost." 
But, 

781. When substantives connected by and, denote one person or thing, 
the verb is singular ; as, " Why is dust and ashes proud? " — " The saint, 
the father, and the husband, prays." — Burns. 

782. Singular nouns, preceded by each, every, no, though connected by 
and, have the verb in the singular ; ars, "Each book and each paper was 
arranged " — " Every paper and every book was arranged " — " No book and 
no paper was arranged." 

783. When a verb, having several nominatives connected by and, is 
placed after the first, it agrees with that, and is understood to the rest; 
as, 

" Forth in the pleasing spring 
Thy beauty walks, thy tenderness, and love" — Thomson. 

784. When the substantives connected are of different persons, the 
verb in the plural prefers the first to the second, and the second to 
the third. This can be perceived only in the pronoun (730-1). 

785. Rule 3. — Two or more substantives singular, taken separately, 
or one to the exclusion of the rest, have a verb in the singular ; as, 



SYNTAX — NOMINATIVE. 167 

"James or John attends" — " Neither James nor John attends " 
— " John, and not [but not] James, attends" — "John, as well as 
James, attends" — "Not John, but James attends." 

786. Nouns taken separately, are connected by or, nor, as well as, and 
also, &c. A noun taken so as to exclude others, is connected with them 
by such phrases as and not, but not, not, &e. In such, the verb agrees 
with the subject affirmed of, and is understood with the others. 

Note. — Singular nouns connected by. nor, sometimes have a plural 
verb. In that case, the verb denies equally of all, and nor is equivalent 
to and, connecting the nouns, and a negative which is transferred to, and 
modifies the verb; as, "Neither Moses, nor Minos, nor Solon, nor Lycur- 
gus, were eloquent men." — Acton, = i Moses, and Minos, and Solon, and 
Lycurgus, were not eloquent men," or, "were none of them eloquent." 
This construction has not been generally noticed, but it often occurs in 
the best writers. 

787. But when two or more substantives, taken separately, are of dif- 
ferent numbers, the verb agrees with the one next it, and the plural sub- 
ject is usually placed next the verb; as, "Neither the captain nor the 
sailors were saved;" rarely, "Neither the sailors nor the captain was 
saved." 

788. Rule 4. — When substantives, taJcen separately, are of differ- 
ent persons, the verb agrees with the one next it ; as, "James or I am 
in the wrong " — " Either you or he is mistaken " — " I or thou art 
to blame." 

789. Though sentences are often formed according to this rule, yet 
they are generally harsh and inelegant. It is generally better to put the 
verb with the first substantive, and repeat it with the second ; or to ex- 
press the same idea by arranging the sentence differently; as, "James is 
in the wrong or I am," or "One of us is in the wrong" — "Either you 
are mistaken or he is" — "I am to blame, or thou art.'' 1 This remark is 
sometimes applicable also, when the substantives are of the same person, 
but different in number, and requiring each a different form of the verb ; 
as, "Either the captain or the sailors were to blame ;" otherwise, "Either 
the captain was to blame, or the sailors were." 

790. Rule 5. — 1. A collective noun, expressing many, as one 
whole, has a verb in the singular ; as, " The company was large." 

791. — 2. But when a collective noun expresses many, as individ- 
uals, the verb must be plural ; as, " My people do not consider." 

792. It is sometimes difficult to determine whether a collective noun 
expresses unity or plurality. It is now considered generally best to use 
the plural, where the singular is not manifestly required. 

793. A nominative after "many a" has a verb in the singular; as, 
"Full many a flower is born," &c. (735). 

794% Two or more verbs connected in the same construction as a com- 
pound predicate (621) have the same nominative; as, "James reads and 
writes" — "James neither reads nor writes." 

795. But when verbs are not connected in the same construction, each 
verb should have its own nominative. The following sentence is wrong 



168 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

in this respect; "The whole is produced as an illusion of the first class, 
and hopes it will be found worthy of patronage ; '.' it should be, either "fie 
produces the whole as an illusion," &c, "and hopes" &c. ; or, " The whole 
is produced," &c, " and he hopes," &c, or, "and it is hoped," &c. 
For the Position of the verb and its subject see (167), and also (741). 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

What is the verb in each of the following sentences ? What is its sub- 
ject? See if they agree. If they do, give the rule and show how it ap- 
plies. If they do not, change the verb so as to agree with its nominative, 
and give the rule. Thus, loves should be love, to agree with i, in the 
first person, singular. Rule — "A verb agrees," &c. (776). 

(776) I loves reading.— A soft answer turn away wrath. — 
We is but of yesterday, and knows nothing. — The days of man 
is as grass. — Thou sees how little has been done.- — He dare not 
act otherwise. — Fifty pounds of wheat produces forty pounds 
of flour.— A variety of pleasing objects charm the eye. — So 
much of ability and merit are seldom found.— A judicious ar- 
rangement of studies facilitate improvement. — Was you there 3 
— Circumstances alters cases. — There is sometimes two or three 
of us. — I, who are first, has the best claim. — The derivation of 
these words are uncertain. — Much does human pride and folly 
require correction. — To do good unto others are the duty of all. 
— To be ignorant of such things are now inexcusable. — (482) 
She needs not trouble herself. 

(777) Forty head of cattle was sold in one hour. — The horse 
was sent forward to engage the enemy.— The foot, in the mean- 
time, was preparing for an attack. — Fifty sail was seen approach- 
ing the coast. — Two dozen is as many as you can take. — One 
pair was spoiled ; five pair was in good condition. 

(778) Patience and diligence, like faith, removes mountains. 
— Life and death is in the power of the tongue. — Anger and 
impatience is always unreasonable. — Out of the same mouth 
proceedeth blessing and cursing. — Idleness and ignorance pro- 
duces many vices. — Temperance and exercise preserves health. 
— Time and tide waits for no man. — Our welfare and security 
consists in unity. — To profess regard and to act differently marks 
a base mind. — To be good and to seem good is different things. 
— To do good and to shun evil is equally our duty. 

(781) That able scholar and critic have died. — Your friend 
and patron, who were here yesterday, have called again to-day. 

(782) Every leaf, and every twig, and every drop of water, 
teem with life. — Every man and every woman were searched. 



S Y N T A X — N OMINATIVE. 169 

— Each day, and hour, and moment, are to be diligently im- 
proved. — No wife, no mother, no child, soothe his cares. — No 
oppressor, no tyrant, triumph there. 

(785) Either the boy or the girl were present. — Neither pre- 
cept nor discipline are so forcible as example. — Our happiness 
or misery depend much upon our own conduct. When sickness, 
infirmity, or misfortune, affect us, the sincerity of friendship is 
tried. — Neither ability nor inclination are wanting. — A man's 
being rich, or his being poor, do not affect his character for in- 
tegrity. — To do good or to get good are equally neglected by 
the foolish. 

(786) His time, as well as his money and health, were lost 
in the undertaking.— He, and not we, are to blame. — James, 
and also his brother, have embarked for the gold region. — Books, 
not pleasure, occupies his mind. — He, and not they, are mis- 
taken. 

(787) Neither the scholars nor the teacher was present. — 
Whether the subjects or the king is responsible, makes no dif- 
ference. 

(788) Either he or I are willing to go. — Neither thou nor he 
art of age. — You or your brother are blamed. — Neither James 
nor I has had a letter this week. — Either Robert or his sons has 
met with great losses. — Thou, or he, or John, art the author of 
that letter. 

(790) Stephen's party were entirely broken up. — The meet- 
ing were large and respectable. — The people often rejoices in 
that which will prove their ruin. — The British parliament are 
composed of lords and commons. — Congress consist of a senate 
and house of representatives. — Never were any nation so infatu- 
ated. — The noble army of martyrs praiseth thee, O God ! — A 
great number of women were present. — The public is respect- 
fully informed. — The audience was much pleased. — The council 
was not unanimous. — Congress have adjourned. 
While still the busy world is treading o'er 
The paths they trod five thousand years before. 

(793) Many a one have tried to be rich, but in vain. — Many 
a broken ship have come to land. 

(795) The letter from which the extract was taken, and came 
by mail, is lost. — It was proposed by the president to fit out an 
expedition, and has accomplished it. — Our friend brought two 
loads to market, and were sold at a good price. • 



170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

THE PREDICATE NOMINATIVE, &c. 
798, Rule IX. — The predicate substantive, after a 
verb, is put in the same case as the subject before it; as — 

« it is /" " He shall be called John" — "She walks a queen" — 

" I took it to be Mm " — " He seems to be a scholar " — " The opinion 
is, that he will live" Hence— 

Note..— As the subject of a verb can be only in the nominative (760), 
or objective (872) the predicate substantive can be only in the nominative 
or objective. 

797. Any verb may be the copula between the subject and the predi- 
cate substantive, except a transitive verb in the active voice. But those 
most commonly used in this way are the verbs to be, to become, to seem, 
to appear ; intransitive verbs of motion, position, &c, and passive verbs, 
denoting to call, name, style, appoint, choose, make, esteem, reckon, &c. 

798. The predicate substantive after a verb may be anything that can 
be the subject of a verb (762). 

799. The infinitive without a subject, or the participle of a copu- 
lative verb (604) in a substantive clause, has a predicate substantive 
after it in the nominative ; as, 

M To be a foreigner is a disadvantage." 

"He was not known to be a foreigner." 

" His being a foreigner was not known." 

"He was suspected of being a foreigner." 

" We did not know his being [or, of his being'\ a foreigner P 

In all these examples, the word foreigner is the predicate nominative 
after to be, or being, because these phrases being only abridged dependent 
clauses (651), the predicate noun remains in the same case after the clause 
is abridged as it was before. Thus, " He was not known to be a foreign- 
er"— :"It was not known that he was a foreigner." As, then, in the lat- 
ter form, foreigner is in the nominative under the rule, it remains the 
same in the abridged form, and so of the other examples. But when we 
say, " For him to be a foreigner," or, " We did not know him to be a 
foreigner" (396), him, in both examples, is the subject of to be, and for- 
eigner is in the objective, according to the rule. 

POSITION. 

800. The usual position of the predicate substantive is after the 
verb, as that of the subject is before it, and this is always the order 
of construction. But in both the direct and the indirect question, 
and in inverted sentences, its place is often different ; thus, " Who 
is he f " — " We know not who he is "— " Is he a student ? " — " He is 
the same that he was" — "The dog it was that died" — "A man he 



S Y N T A X — OBJECTIVE 171 

was to all the country clear'' — "Feet was / to the lame ' — u Far 
other scene is T lirasymene now." 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

In each of the following sentences, which is the copulative verb ? — 
what is its subject? — what the predicate substantive"? Correct where it 
is wrong, and give the reason for the correction. Thus, me is the predi- 
cate substantive, and should be /, because the subject it is in the nomin- 
ative. Rule — u The predicate," &c. 

(796) It is me. — It was me who wrote the letter, and him 
who carried it to the post-office. — I am sure it could not have 
been her. — It is them, you said, who deserve most blame. — You 
would probably do the same thing if you were him. — I under- 
stood it to be he. — It may have been him, but there is no proof 
of it. — If I were him, I would go abroad at once.— I little 
thought it had been him. — It is not me you are in love with. — 
Art thou proud yet ? Ay, and that I am not thee. 

Whom do you think he is ? — Who do you think him to be ? — 
Whom do men say that I am? — She is the person who I under- 
stood it to be.— -He is the man whom you said it was. — Let him 
be whom he may. — Can you tell whom that man is ? — Is it not 
him whom you thought it was? — Thomas knew not whom it 
was that called, though quite certain it was not her who we saw 
yesterday. — Let the same be she who thou hast appointed for 
thy servant Isaac. — He was not the person whom he affected 
to be. 



THE OBJECTIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. 

801. Rule X. — A transitive verb in the active voice 
governs the objective case; as, "We love him" — "He 
loves us" — " JFViowdid they send?" 

802. The infinitive mood, a participle used as a noun, or part of a 
sentence, may be the object of a transitive verb, as well as a noun 
or pronoun ; as, " Boys love to play" — " I know who is there" — " I 
wish that they were wise" — u You see how few have returned " 

SPECIAL RULES, 

803. Rule 1. — An intransitive verb does not govern an objective 
case (320, 1). Thus— 



172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

a Repenting Mm of his design," should be, " Repenting of his 
design." Still, a few anomalies of this kind are to be found; as> 
" They laughed Aim to scorn." — "The manliness to look the subject 
in the face." — •" Talked the night away." 

804. Rule 2. — Intransitive verbs in a transitive sense (375) govern 
the objective case (321, 1, 2) ; as, M He runs a race." — " They live a 
holy lifer 

805. To this usage may be referred such expressions in poetry as the 
following : " The brooks ran nectar" — " The trees wept gums and bahyis" 
— " Her lips blush deeper szveets," &c. 

808. To this rule also belongs the objective after causatives (375-3) ; 
as, "He runs a stage." — "John walks his horse." — "He works him hard," 
&c. Such expressions, however, as "Grows com" are inelegant, and 
should be avoided. 

807. Rule 3. — Intransitive verbs do not admit a passive voice, ex- 
cept when used transitively (375). Thus — 

"lam purposed" — "I am perished," should be, "I have pur- 
posed" — "lam perishing." But we can say, "My race is run" 
because run is used transitively. Such expressions as "I am re- 
solved" — "He is deceased" — "He is retired from business" — " We 
are determined to go on," &c, though common, are incorrect. It is 
better to say, "I have resolved " — " He has retired," &c. 

808. A transitive verb in the active voice, without an object, either has 
an object understood, or is used intransitively (323). 

809. Rule 4. — A transitive verb does not admit a preposition after 
it; thus, " I must premise with & few observations."-— " I will not 
allow of it " Omit with and of. 

810. Rule 5. — Verbs signifying ^ name, choose, appoint, con- 
stitute, and the like, generally govern two objectives, viz., the direct, 
denoting the person or thing acted upon, and the indirect, denoting 
the result of the act expressed ; as, " They named him John." — " The 
people elected him president." — " They made it a book." 

811. In such sentences, when the verb is in the passive voice, the di- 
rect object of the active form is made the subject of the. passive, and the 
indirect remains as the predicate nominative after the verb, according to 
Rule IX. Thus, " He was named John" — " He was elected president." — 
" It was made a book." 

812. Besides the direct or immediate object in the objective case, some 
verbs have a remote object between the immediate and the verb, governed 
by a preposition understood ; as, "John gave me a book." But when the 
remote object comes last, the preposition must be expressed ; as, "John 
gave a book to me." The verbs thus used are such as signify to ask, teach, 
offer, promise, give, pay, tell, allow, deny, and some others. 

818. These verbs properly take the immediate object of the active 



SYNTAX — OBJECTIVEo 173 

voice as the subject in the passive, and the remote object remains in the 
objective after the passive, governed by a preposition expressed or under- 
stood; as, "A book was promised me or to me " (811). 

81 i. In loose composition, however, the remote object is sometimes 
made the subject, and the immediate object remains in the objective case 
after the passive voice ; as, "i was promised a book." The verbs ask and 
teach frequently have this double construction in the passive, but in gen- 
eral the regular construction is better. 

Similar to this are certain expressions sufficiently correct in the active 
form, but which are anomalous, and cannot be analyzed in the form usu- 
ally but incorrectly given to them in the passive: Thus, Active — " They 
took possession of the farm." Passive (incorrectly) " The farm was taken 
possession of by them." — (correctly) " Possession of the farm was taken 
by theme" This anomaly arises from inadvertently making the object of 
the preposition, (farm,) instead of the object of the verb in the active 
voice, (possession,) the subject of the verb in the passive. Such anoma- 
lies are the following : " The circumstance was made use of." — " The ship 
was lost sight of." — u The occasion was taken advantage of." Either the 
regular passive form of expression should be used, or, if that be awkward, 
a different form of expression should be chosen. 

POSITION. 

815* As the nominative and the objective case of nouns are alike, 
the arrangement of the sentence should clearly distinguish the one 
case from the other. The nominative generally precedes the verb, 
and the objective /^tas it. Thus, "Brutus killed Csesar." If one 
(or both) of these should be a pronoun, the order may be varied 
without obscuring the sense, and sometimes the objective is rendered 
more emphatic by being placed first; as, "Him he slew." 

816. When the objective is a relative or an interrogative pronoun, 
it precedes both the verb and its nominative ; as, " The man whom 
we saw is dead." — " Whom did you send ?" 

817. The objective should not, if possible, be separated from its verb 
by intervening clauses. Thus, " We could not discover, for the want of 
proper tests, the quality of the metal." Better, " We could not, for want 
of proper tests, discover the quality of the metal. 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

^ In the following sentences, correct the errors according to the rule, and 
give a reason for the change. Parse the sentences corrected. Thus, 1 
should be me, because governed by loves. Rule, X, "A transitive verb, ' 
&c: — 

(801) He loves I. — He and they we know, but who art thou? 
— She that is idle and mischievous, reprove sharply. — Ye only 
have I known. — He who committed the offence thou shouldst 
correct, not I who am innocent. — They that honor me I will 



174 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

honor. — Who do you think I saw yesterday? — Who did he mar- 
ry? — She who we met at the Springs last summer. — Who, 
having not seen, we love.— Who should I meet the other day 
but my old friend? — Who dost thou take to be such a coward? 

(803) You will have reason enough to repent you of your 
foolish conduct. — They did not fail to enlarge themselves on the 
subject. — Go, flee thee away into the land of Judea. — Hasten 
thee home. — Sit thee down and rest thee. 

(807) Several persons were entered into a conspiracy. — 
Fifty men are deserted from the army. — I am purposed that I 
will not sin. — He is almost perished with cold. — I am resolved 
to go. — He is retired to his room. — The plague was then en- 
tirely ceased. — Is your father returned? He was not returned 
an hour ago. 

(809) No country will allow of such a practice. — False ac- 
cusation can not diminish from his real merit.— His servants ye 
are, to whom ye. obey. — He ingratiates with some by traducing 
others. — They shall not want for encouragement.— We do not 
want for anything. — Covet earnestly for the best gifts. 

Change the following into the regular form, and give a reason for the 
change : — 

(813) I was promised a pension. — He was offered a pardon. 
— She would not accept the situation, though she was offered it. 
— I was paid a dollar for my services. — I was given a book of 
great value. — The commissioner was denied access. 

(817) Becket could not better discover, than by attacking so 
powerful an interest, his resolution to maintain his right. — The 
troops pursued, without waiting to rest, the enemy to their gates* 



THE OBJECTIVE GOVERNED BY PREPOSITIONS. 

818, Rule XI. — A preposition governs the objective 
case; as, "To whom much is given, of him much shall 
be required." 

819, The object of. a preposition is sometimes an infinitive mood — a 
participle used as a noun— part of a sentence— a phrase, or dependent 
clause, as well as a noun or pronoun ; as, " He is about to depart." — 
"After we came?—" On receiving his diploma."— "Much depends on who 
are his advisers." 

820, As a general rule, it is considered inelegant to connect either an 
active transitive verb and a preposition, or two prepositions with the 
same object. Thus, " I wrote to and wamedhim." Better, "I wrote to 



R Y N T A X — B J B CTIVR. 175 

kirn, and warned hi my So, "Of him, and through him, and to him, are 
all things." Not of, and through, and fo Aim," &c. 

821. This general rule is so little regarded, even by the best writers, 
that it is a matter of doubt whether it should any longer retain a place in 
our grammars. In many instances, at least, the form of speech con- 
demned by the rule is clearly better in respect of perspicuity, brevity, and 
strength, than that which it recommends, and in such cases it should be 
adopted. In some cases, again, as in the above example, the full form is 
better than the elliptical. In this matter, every one must be guided by 
his taste and judgment, avoiding equally obscurity and harshness. 

822. When the prepositions to, at, in, stand before names of places, 
the following usage should be carefully observed, viz. : — 

1. To — is used after a verb of motion toward ; as, " He went to Spain." 

But it is omitted before home ; as, " Go home." 

2. At — is used before names of houses, villages, towns, and foreign 

cities ; as, u He resides at the Mansion House." — "At Saratoga 
Springs." — "At Lisbon." 

3. In — is used before names of countries and large cities ; as, "He 

lives in England " — "in London" — "in New York." But at 
is used before the names of places and large cities after the 
verbs touch, arrive, land, and frequently after the verb to be ; 
as, " We touched at Liverpool, and, after a short passage, 
landed at New Orleans." — " I was at New York." 

4. In speaking of one's residence in a city, at is used before the J¥o., 

and in before the street ; as, " He resides at No. ." — " He 

lives in State street." When both are mentioned together, 
the preposition is commonly understood before the last ; as, 

" He lives at No. , State street," or " He lives in State 

street, No. ." 

823. The preposition is frequently understood, as follows : — 

1. A preposition expressed with the first noun or pronoun of a series, 

may be understood to the rest ; as, " Be kind to John and James 
and Mary." 

2. When the remote object of a verb, governed by a preposition, is 

placed between the verb and its immediate object, the preposi- 
tion is often omitted ; as, u Give me your hand." — " Bring me a 
chair."— " Get me a book " (812). 

3. To is commonly omitted after like, near, nigh ; as, "Like his father." 

— "Near a river," &c; and of frequently after worthy and un- 
worthy. 

824. Sometimes the antecedent term of a preposition, and sometimes 
the subsequent (539), is omitted. Thus, the antecedent: "[I say'] in a 
word." — "All shall know me [reckoning'] from the least to the greatest." 
The subsequent : "There is a man I am acquainted with"— that is, with 
whom I am acquainted. The subsequent is always omitted when it is the 
indefinite antecedent to which a compound relative refers (273): as, 
" Give it to whoever will take it." 

825. The phrases, in vain, in secret, at first, at last, in short, on high, 
and the like, may either be parsed together as adverbs, or the nou§ may 



176 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

be supplied, and each word parsed separately; as, "In. a vain manner" 
— " In a secret place" &c. 

826. Adverbs representing adverbial phrases ending with a preposition, 
govern a noun following, in the- objective ; as, u Manyre hell, 1 ' that is, u in 
spite of hell." — Milton. 

827. Though words denoting weight, measure, &c, are evidently gov- 
erned by a preposition, yet, as it is for the most part understood, it is 
better to dispose of such cases by the following — 

SPECIAL RULE. 

828, Rule. — Nouns denoting time, yalue, weight, or 
measure, are commonly put in the objective case, ivithout 
a governing ivord (165, 3); as, 

" He was absent six months last year J 1 — " It cost & shilling." — 
" It is not worth a cent." — " It weighs a pound." — " The wall is six 
feet high, and two feet thick." 

This may be called the objective of time, value, weight, &c, as 
the case may be. 

8*29. Nouns denoting time how long are generally without a preposition ; 
as, " He is ten years old." Also nouns denoting time when, in a general 
or indefinite way ; as, "He came last iveek." But nouns denoting the 
time when, definitely or with precision, generally have the preposition ex- 
pressed; as, "He came last week, on Wednesday, in the evening." 

POSITION. 

830. Prepositions should be placed before the words which they 
govern, and as near to them as possible ; but never before that as a 
relative. 

831. Whom and which are sometimes governed by a preposition at 
some distance after them ; this, however, should be avoided as much as 
possible. Thus, " That is the man whom I gave the letter to." Generally 
better thus — "to whom I gave the letter." 

832. The preposition with its regimen (539) should be placed as 
near as possible to the word to which it is related. 

833. Under this rule, there is liability to error only in the use of pro- 
nouns and with regard to position (830). 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

In each of the following sentences, point out the preposition, and the 
word governed by it. Correct the errors, and give a reason for the 
change. Parse the sentences when corrected : — 

(818) To who will you give that pen? — That is a small mat- 
ter between you and I. — He came along with James and I. — 



SYNTAX — PREPOSITIONS. 177 

He gave the book to some one, I know not who. — (831) Who 
does it belong to? — The book which I read that story in is lost. 

(822) I have been to Boston. — They live in Saratoga Springs. 
— We touched in Liverpool on our way for New York. — He 
has been to home for some days. — He lives at Hudson street, hi 
No. 42. — We remained in a village in the vicinity of London. 

(823) Be so good as lend to me your grammar. — Get to him 
a book like that. — Ask of me that question again. — This has 
taught to me a lesson which I will always be mindful of. — Pay 
to me what you owe to me. — I shall be pleased to do to him a 
kindness. — Will you do to me a favor? 

(830) The nature of the undertaking was such as to render 
the progress very slow of the work. — Beyond this period the 
arts can not be traced of civil society. 

(832) The wrong position of the preposition and its regimen often pro- 
duces very ludicrous sentences. The following are a specimen : — 

Wanted a young man to take care of some horses, of a reli- 
gious turn of mind. — The following verses were written by a 
young man who has long lain in the grave, for his own amuse- 
ment. — A public dinner was given to the inhabitants, of roast 
beef and plum pudding. — I saw that the kettle had been scoured, 
with half an eye. — He rode to town, and drove twelve cows, 
on horseback. — The man was digging a well, with a Roman 
nose. 



834, Rule XII. — Certain words and phrases should 
be followed by appropriate prepositions. 

The following list may be useful for reference : — 

Abhorrence of. Adjudge to. 

Abound in } with. Admonish of. 

Abridge from. Address to 

Absent from. Admission (access) to. 

Access to. Admission (entrance) into. 

Accommodate to. Advantage over, of. 

Accord with. Affinity to, with. 

Accuse of. Affection for. 

Acquaint with. Agree with a person ; to a proposi- 

Acquit of tion from another ; upon a 

Acquiesce in. thing among themselves. 

Adapted to. Agreeable to. 

Adequate to. Allude to. 

Adhere to* Alter to, alteration in. 



178 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Amerce in. 

Annex to. 

Analogy to, with. 

Antipathy to, against. 

Approve of. 

Array with, in. 

Arrive at. 

Ascendant over. 

Ask of a person ; for a thing ; after 

what we wish to hear of. 
Aspire to, after. 
Associate with, seldom to. 
Assent to. 
Assure of. 
Attain to. 
Averse to, from. 
Banish from, to. 
Believe in, sometimes on. 
Bereft of 
Bestow upon, on. 

Betray to a person ; into a thing. 
Boast of. 
Bind to, in. 
Blush at. 
Border upon, on. 
Call on a person ; at a place. 
Capacity for. 
Careful of in. 
Catch at. 
Change (exchange) for ; (alter) to, 

into. 
Charge on a person ; with a thing. 
Compare with, in respect of quality ; 

to, by way of illustration. 
Comply, compliance with. 
Composed of 
Concede to. 
Concur with a person ; in a measure ; 

to an effect. 
Condescend to. 
Confer on, upon. 
Confide in. 

Conformable, conformity to, with. 
Congenial to. 
Congratulate upon, on. 
Consonant to. 
Consist (to be composed^) of; (to be 

comprised) in. 
Consistent with. 
Contrast with. 
Conversant with men ; in things ; 

about and among are less proper. 



Convict of a crime ; in a penalty. 

Copy after a person ; from a thing. 

Correspond (to be consistent) with ; 
(answering or suitable) to. 

Correspondence with. 

Cured of. 

Debar from. 

Defend (others) from ; — (ourselves) 
against., 

Demand of 

Denounce against a person. 

Depend, dependent upon, on. 

Deprive of. 

Derogate from, derogatory to. 

Derogation from, of. 

Despair of. 

Despoil of 

Devolve on. 

Die, perish of a disease ; by an in- 
strument, or violence ; for an- 
other. 

Differ, different from. 

Difficulty in. 

Diminish from, diminution of 

Disable d/rom. 

Disagree with a person ; to a pro- 
posal. 

Disagreeable to. 

Disappointed of what we do not 
get ; in what does not answer 
when got. 

Disapprove of 

Discourage from ; discouragement 
to. 

Disgusted at, with. 

Dispose of; disposed (adj.) to. 

Dispossess of. 

Disqualify for. 

Dissent from. 

Distinct from. 

Divested of. 

Divide between two ; among more. 

Eager in, on, of for, after. 

Embark in. 

Employ in, on, about. 

Enamored with. 

Encroach upon, on. 

Endeavor after a thing. 

Engage in a work ; for a time. 

Enjoin upon. 

Entrance into. 

Equal to, with. 



SYNTAX — PREPOSITIONS, 



179 



Equivalent to. 

Espouse to. 

Estimated at. 

Exception from, to. 

Exclude, exclusion from. 

Exclusive of 

Expelled from. 

Expert at (before a noun) ; in (be- 
fore an active participle). 

Fall under disgrace ; from a tree ; 
into a pit ; to work ; upon an 
enemy. 

Familiar to, with ; a thing is famil- 
iar to us — we with it. 

Fawn upon, on. 

Followed by. 

Fond of. 

Foreign to, sometimes from. 

Founded upon, on, in. 

Free from. 

Fruitful in. 

Full of. 

Glad of something gained by our- 
selves; at something that be- 
falls another. 

Grateful to a person ; for favors. 

Hanker after. 

Hinder from. 

Hold of; as, " Take hold of me." 

Impose upon. 

Incorporate (active transitive) into; 
(intransitive or passive) with. 

Inculcate on. 

Independent of. 

Indulge with a thing not habitual ; 
in a thing habitual. 

Indulgent to. 

Influence on, over, with. 

Inform of, about, concerning. 

Initiate into a place ; in an art. 

Inquire. — (See ask.) 

Inroad into. 

Inseparable from. 

Insinuate into. 

Insist upon. 

Instruct in. 

Inspection (prying) into; (superin- 
tendence) over. 

Intent upon, on. 

Interfere with. 

Intervene between. 

Introduce into a place ; to a person. 



Intrude into a place enclosed ; upon 
a person, or a thing not en- 
closed. 

Inured to. 

Invested with, in. 

Lame of. 

Level with. 

Long for, after. 

Look on what is present \ for what 
is absent ; after what is distant. 

Made of. 

Made much of. 

Marry to. 

Martyr for. 

Militate against. 

Mistrustful of 

Need of. 

Obedient to. 

Object to, against. 

Observance, observation of. 

Obtrude upon, on. 

Occasion for. 

Offensive to. 

Operate upon, on. 

Opposite, opposition to. 

Partake of; participate of in. 

Penetrate into. 

Persevere in. 

Pitch upon. 

Poor in. 

Prefer to, over, above. 

Preference to, over. 

Preferable to. 

Prefix to. 

Prejudice against. 

Preside over. 

Prevent from. 

Prevail (to persuade) with, on, upon; 
(to overcome) over, against. 

Prey on, upon. 

Productive of. 

Profit by. 

Protect others/row; ourselves ag y nst 

Pronounce against a person ; on a 
thing. 

Provide with, for. 

Proud of 

Purge of, away. 

Quarrel with. 

Reckon on, upon. 

Reconcile (to friendship) to; (to 
make consistent) with. 



180 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Reduce (subdue) under ; (in other Submit to. 

cases) to. Sent to. 

Reflect upon, on. Swerve from. 

Regard for; in regard to. Taste of means actual enjoyment; 
Rely upon, on. — taste for, means capacity or 

Replete with. genius for. 

Reproached for. Tax with (for example, a crime, an 
Resemblance to. act) ; for (a purpose, a state). 

Resolve on. Thankful for. 

Respect to ; in resj^ect to, of Think of on. 

Restore to. Touch at. 

Rich in. Unite (transitive) to; (intransitive) 
Rob of. with. 

Rule over. Unison with, to. 

Share in, of. Useful for. 

Sick of. Value xipon, on. 

Significant of. Vest, before the possessor, in ; be- 
Similar to. fore the possessed, with. 

Sink into, beneath. "Wait upon, on. 
Skillful (before a noun) in ; (before Witness of. 

a participle) at, in. Worthy, unworthy of. But after 
Strain out. these, of is generally omitted. 

Strip of. 

835. What preposition it is proper to use, often depends as much upon 
what follows, as upon what goes before. Thus, " To fall from a height" 
— u into a pit " — " in battle " — " to work" — " upon an enemy." 

836. Into is used only after verbs of motion, and implies entrance, hi 
is used after verbs of motion or rest, and denotes situation, but never 
entrance ; as, u He went into a carriage, and rode in it." 

837. Boast, approve, and disapprove, are often used without a preposi- 
tion following ; so also worthy and unworthy. 

838. The same preposition that follows a verb or adjective, usually fol- 
lows the noun derived from it, and vice versa; as, " Confide in" — " Confi- 
dent in" — "Confidence in." 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

In the following sentences, point out the prepositions and the antece- 
dent term. If not appropriate, correct, and give the rule : — 

This remark is founded with truth. — He was eager of recom- 
mending him to his fellow-citizens. — I find great difficulty of 
writing.— Every change is not a change to the better. — Changed 
for a worse shape it can not be. — It is important, in times of 
trial, to have a friend to whom you can confide. — You may rely 
in the truth of what he says. — Many have profited from good 
advice, but have not always been grateful of it. — I have no oc- 
casion of his services. — Favors are not always bestowed to the 
most deserving. — This is very different to that. — Virtue and 
vice differ widely with each other. — Come in the house. — We 



SYNTAX — POSSESSIVE. 181 

rode into a carnage with four horses. — The boy fell under a 
deep pit. — Such conduct cannot be reconciled to your profession. 
— Go, and be reconciled with thy brother. — A man had four 
sons, and he divided his property between them. — I am now en- 
gaged with that work. — He insists on it that he is right. 



THE POSSESSIVE GOVERNED BY SUBSTANTIVES. 

839. Rule XIII. — A substantive that limits the signi- 
fication of another , must be put in the possessive case ; 
as, "Virtue's reivard" — " John's books" 

810. The substantive in the possessive case limits the significa- 
tion of the other, by representing the thing named as proceeding 
from, possessed by, or suitable to the person or thing expressed by 
the possessive (165). It is of course necessary, under this rule, that 
the substantives signify different things. 

841. A substantive, limited by the possessive, may be any noun in any 
case, or a verbal noun (462), either alone or with its regimen, or modify- 
ing words ; as, " On eagle's wings." — " He was opposed to John's writing." 
— "I am in favor of a pupil's composing frequently" (896). — "John's 
having devoted himself too much to study was the cause of his sickness." 
(463). 

842. The noun limited by the possessive is often understood ; as, "This 
book is John's [book]." It is always omitted after the possessive case of 
the personal pronouns ; as, " This book is mine, thine, ours," &c, and, in 
this construction, when supplied, the possessive case must be changed for 
the possessive pronoun (241); as, " This is my book, thy book, our book;" 
not mine book, &c. (292). 

843. The possessive case, and the preposition of with the objective, are 
often equivalent ; as, " My father's house "=z u The house of my father." 
But— 

844. Sometimes the idea expressed by of with the objective, can not 
be expressed at all by the possessive; as, "A ring of gold" — "A cup of 
water" — "A piece of land" — "The house of refuge," &c. Sometimes, 
again, the ideas expressed are different; thus, " The Lord's day" means 
the sabbath. " The day of the Lord," means the day of judgment. " My 
failures picture," means a picture belonging to my father. "A picture 
of my father," means a portrait of him. "God's love," means only the 
love which God feels. " The love of God," means either the love which 
God feels to us, or that which we feel to him. 

845. Of, before a possessive case, followed by the substantive which it 
limits, usually governs that substantive ; as, "The heat of the sun's rays." 
But of before a possessive, not followed by the substantive which it limits, 
governs that substantive understood, and the expression refers to a part 
of the things possessed ; as, "A discovery of [that is, from] Sir Isaac 
Newton's [discoveries] ;" meaning, " One of Sir Isaac Newton's discove- 
ries" (242). 



182 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

846. Even when the possessive case, and of with the objective, are 
equivalent in meaning, the arrangement and euphony, as well as the per- 
spicuity of the sentence, will often render the one expression preferable to 
the other. When this is the case, care should be taken to use that form 
which, in the circumstances, is best. Thus, " In the name of the army," 
is better than, u In the army's name;" "My mother's gold ring," is bet- 
ter than, " The gold ring of my mother." A succession of words in 
either form is harsh, and may be avoided by a proper mixture of the two ; 
thus, "My brother's wife's sister" — better — "The sister of my brother's 
wife." — "The sickness of the son of the king" — better — "The sickness 
of the king's son," 

847* When several nouns come together in the possessive case, imply- 
ing common possession, the sign of the possessive is annexed to the last, 
and understood to the rest ; as " Jane and Lucy's books," that is, books 
the common property of Jane and Lucy. But if common possession is 
not implied, or if several words intervene, the sign of the possessive 
should be annexed to each ; as, "Jane's and Lucy's books," that is, books, 
some of which are Jane's, and others Lucy's. " This gained the king's, 
as well as the people's, approbation." 

848. When a name is complex, consisting of more terms than one, the 
sign of the possessive is annexed to the last only ; as, " Julius Csesar's 
Commentaries " — " John the Baptist's head" — " His brother Philip's wife" 
— "The Bishop of London's charge." Here Julius Casar's is a complex 
name, in the possessive ; John and brother are in the possessive, without 
the sign, that being annexed to the words Baptist and Philip, in apposi- 
tion. In the last example, "London" is in the objective case, governed 
by of, and the 's annexed properly belongs to Bishop, which limits the 
word charge. In parsing the words separately, the transfer must, of 
course be so made. But the true reason for annexing 's to London is, that 
the whole phrase, " Bishop of London," is regarded as one term, in the 
possessive limiting the word charge, and may be so parsed. Thus, "a com- 
plex noun in the possessive case, limiting the word charge" 

849. When a short explanatory term is joined to a name, the sign of 
the possessive may be annexed to either ; as, "I called at Smith's the 
bookseller," or, "at Smith the bookseller's." But if, to such a phrase, the 
substantive which it limits is added, the sign of the possessive must be 
annexed to the last ; as, " I called at Smith the bookseller's shop." 

850. If the explanatory circumstance be complex, or consisting of more 
terms than one, the sign of the possessive must be annexed to the name 
or first substantive ; as, " This Psalm is David's, the king, priest, and 
prophet of the people." — "That book is Smith's, the bookseller in Maiden 
Lane. 

851. This mode of expression, however, is never elegant, and, though 
sometimes used when the governing substantive is understood, yet it 
would be better to avoid it, and say, "This is a psalm of David, the king," 
&c, or, " This is one of the psalms of David," &c. But an expression 
like this can not, with any propriety, be used when the substantive lim- 
ited by the possessive is added. Thus, " David, the king, priest, and 
prophet of the people's psalm," would be intolerable. 

852. When two nouns in the possessive are used to limit different 



SYNTAX — POSSESSIVE. 183 

words, the sign of the possessive must be annexed to each ; as, " He 
took refuge at the governors, the king's representative," that is, "at 
the governor's home" 

853. The s after the apostrophe is sometimes omitted, when the first 
word ends, and the following word begins, with an s, or when the use of 
it would occasion a disagreeable repetition of s-sounds ; as, " For right- 
eousness' sake" — "For conscience' sake" — "For Jesus' sake" — "At Je- 
sus' feet" (173). In other cases, such omissions would generally be im- 
proper; as, "James' book" — "Miss' shoes," instead of, "James's book" 
— " Miss's shoes." 

854. A clause of a sentence should never come between the possessive 
case and the word which it limits ; thus, " She began to extol the farmer's 
as she called him, excellent understanding," should be, "the excellent 
understanding of the farmer, as she called him." 

855. A noun limited by the possessive plural, or by two or more nouns 
severally in the possessive singular, should not be plural unless the sense 
require it. Thus, " The men's health [not healths] suffered from the cli- 
mate " — " John's and William's wife [not wives] are of the same age." 

856. The possessive whosesoever is sometimes divided by interposing the 
word which it limits : as, "whose house soever" This, in general, how- 
ever, is to be avoided, and to be admitted only when euphony and preci- 
sion, are thereby promoted (277). 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

In the following sentences, show which is the limiting substantive, and 
which is the one limited — where wrong, correct according to the rule or 
observations. 

(839) Virtues reward. — One mans loss is often another mans 
gain. — Mans chief end is to glorify God. — My ancestors virtue 
is not mine. — A mothers tenderness and a fathers care are na- 
tures gifts for mans advantage. — On eagles wings. — For Christ 
sake. — For ten sake. — Which dictionary do you prefer — Web- 
ster, Walker, or Johnson? — (172) Asa his heart was perfect. — 
John Thompson his book. — Lucy Jones her book. 

(841) He was averse to the nation involving itself in war. — 
Much depends on your pupil composing frequently. — He being 
rich did not make him happy. — I am opposed to him going on 
such an expedition. 

(842) That book is James book, and that one is Roberts. — 
That knife is your knife, but I thought it was my knife. — My 
book is old, but your book and Roberts book are new. — Which 
is the best book, your book or my book ? 

(845) That landscape is a picture of my father. — The work 
you speak of is one of Irving. — Gravitation was a discovery of 
Sir Isaac Newton. — That is a ring of my mother. 



184 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

(846) The world's government is not left to chance. — The 
tree is known by the fruit of it. — The commons' vote was against 
the measure, but the lords' vote was in its favor. — The weekly 
return of the day of the Lord is a blessing to man. — The repre- 
sentatives house is now in session. — The extent of the prerog- 
ative of the king of England is well understood. — John's 
brother's wife's mother is sick. — The severity of the sickness of 
the son of the king caused great alarm. — Your brothers servant's 
situation is critical. 

(847) William's and Mary's reign. — Cain and Abels sacrifice 
were not the same. — David and Solomon's reign were prosper- 
ous. — John and William's wife are cousins. — Men, women, and 
childrens shoes for sale. — He cared for his father and also for 
his mother's interest. — The Betsy and Speedwells cargoes were 
both saved. 

(848) Messrs. Pratt's, Woodford's, & Co.'s bookstore is in 
New York. — Thompson's & Company's office was on fire. — 
Jack's the Giant-killer's wonderful exploits. — The bishop's of 
London's charge to his clergy. — The Grand Sultan's Mahomet's 
palace. — The secretary's of war report. 

(850 & 851) Call at Smith the bookseller and stationer's. — 
The parcel was left at Johnson, a merchant in Broadway's. — 
He emulated Csesar the greatest general of antiquity's bravery. 
■ — General Taylor, president of the United States, an excellent 
man and brave soldier's residence. 

(852) That house is Smith the poor man's friend, — We spent 
an agreeable hour at Wilson, the governor's deputy. — The coach 
stopped at Mr. Brown, Henry's father. 

(853) James father arrived yesterday. — Charles books are 
completely spoiled. — King James translators merely revised 
former translations. — For conscience's sake. — For righteous- 
ness's sake. 

(854) They condemned the judge's in the case of Bardwell 
decision. — The prisoner's, if I may say so, conduct was shame- 
ful. — Peter the Hermit's as he was called, opinion. 

(855) All men have talents committed to their charges. — It 
is the duty of Christians to submit to their lots. — We protest 
against this course, in our own names and in the names of our 
constituents. — A father's and mother's loves to their children are 
very tender. — The gentlemans and ladys healths are improving. 



SYNTAX — SUBJUNCTIVE, 185 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

857. Rule XIV. — The subjunctive mood is used hi 
dependent clauses, token both contingency or doubt, and 
futurity, are expressed; as, " If he continue to study he 
will improve." 

858. When contingency or doubt only, and not futurity, is im- 
plied, the indicative is used; as, u If he has money he keeps it." 

859. Contingency or doubt is usually expressed by the connectives, if, 
though, unless^ except, whether, &c. ; but whether futurity is implied or 
not, must be gathered from the context. In general, when the sense is 
the same, with shall, will, or should prefixed to the verb, as without it, 
the subjunctive may be used ; otherwise, not. Thus, in the preceding 
example, "If he continue," and, "If he shall continue," mean the same 
thing. 

860. Formerly, the subjunctive was used to express contingency, or 
doubt, whether futurity was implied or not. Of this, the English Bible 
furnishes examples in almost every page (See Job xx., 12-14), where pre- 
sent usage would require the indicative. The tendency, at present, is to 
the other extreme. The present or future indicative, or past potential, is 
now more generally used instead of the present subjunctive (391), and 
this has led some grammarians to reject the subjunctive altogether, and 
to regard what was formerly called the present subjunctive as an elliptical 
form of the future indicative, or past potential. It appears to be certain, 
however, that there are forms usually called the present subjunctive, estab- 
lished by the authority of the best writers of every age, not excepting even 
the present, which can not be disposed of in this way ; for example, "It 
is no matter whether this or that be in itself the less or the greater crime." 
— Lillo. — "The question is not whether man be a free agent." — Hobbes. 
» — " If this be an error, it is a harmless one." In none of these can shall, 
or will, or should, be introduced, without changing or destroying the 
sense. In all of them, present usage would substitute is for be. It will 
not do, however, for the grammarian to set up a rule, by which estab- 
lished and reputable usage is condemned, though the present taste tends 
another way. Still, there are cases in which this change is inadmissible 
(390). 

861. Zest and that, annexed to a command, require the subjunc- 
tive mood ; as, "Love not sleep, lest thou come to poverty " — " Take 
heed that thou speak not to Jacob, either good or bad." And some- 
times without a command; as, "They shall bear thee up, lest thou 
dash thy foot against a stone." — "Is not this the fast that I have 
chosen — that thou bring the poor to thy house." 

862. If, with but following it, when futurity is denoted, requires 
the subjunctive mood; as, " If he do but touch the hills, they shall 
smoke." But when future time is not implied, the indicative is used ; 
as, "If he does but whisper, every word is heard distinctly." 



186 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

868. The subjunctive mood is used to express a wish or desire; as, "I 
wish I were at home.'' " 0, that he ivere wise ! " 

861. A supposition or wish, implying a present denial of the thing sup- 
posed or desired, is expressed by the past subjunctive ; as, "If my king- 
dom were of this world, then would my servants fight," implying, "It is 
not of this world."—" 0, that thou wert as my brother ! " implying, " Thou 
art not" (439-2). 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

What verbs in the following sentences, should, according to the rule, 
be in the subjunctive mood, and what in the indicative ? — correct them 
accordingly — parse the sentences corrected. 

(857) If a man smites his servant and he dies, he shall surely 
be put to death. — We must go to-morrow, unless it rains. — 
There will be enough to do next week, if the weather is good. 
— Though the sky be clear, it is cold. — He will maintain his 
cause, though he loses his estate. — We may get letters, if the 
mail arrives in time. — If John be come, why did you not tell 
me ? — If it snows all night, the roads will be impassable. — Ask 
John if he know when the legislature meets. — If he know any 
thing, he surely knows, that unless he gets better he can not be 
removed. — If thou be the Son of God, command that these 
stones be made bread. 

(861) Take care that the horse does not run away. — See 
that thou dost it not. — Let him that standeth take heed lest he 
falls. — Kiss the Son, lest he is angry. — Reprove not a scorner, 
lest he hates thee. 

(862) If he is but in health, it will be the cause of great 
thankfulness. — If he does but run, he will soon overtake them. 
— If he be but in health, I am content. — O, that he was wise ! 
— I wish I was at home. 

(864) If I was not Alexander, I would be Diogenes. — If it 
was not so, I would have told you. — If he was a year older, I 
would send him to school. — Was gold more abundant, it would 
be of less value. — If he was an impostor, he must have been 
detected. — If I was he, I would accept the offer. — Was I he, I 
would accept the offer. 



THE INFINITIVE MOOD. 

865, Eule XV. — The infinitive mood is governed by 
verbs, nouns, or adjectives; as, " I desire to learn " — 
"A desire to learn " — "Anxious to learn." 



SYNTAX — INFINITIVE. 187 

868. The infinitive is a sort of verbal noun, and has the construction 
of both a verb and a noun. 

867, As a noun, the infinitive may be : 1. The subject of a verb 
(394) ; as, "To play is pleasant." 2. The object of a verb (802) ; as, 
"Boys love to play" 8. The predicate nominative after a copula- 
tive verb (798) ; as, "He is to be married." 4. In apposition with 
another noun (670) ; as, " Spare, spare your friends the task, to read, 
to nod, to scoff, condemn." 5. The object of a preposition (819); as, 
"About to depart" — " What went ye out for to see f" 

868. At the same time that the infinitive is used as a noun, it may have 
all the modifications of the verb in respect of time, government, or ad- 
juncts, forming, with them, an abridged sentence, or clause or phrase 
(653); as, " To see the sun at midnight is impossible." Here, to see is 
modified by its object, the sun, and by the adjunct, at midnight, and the 
whole clause is the subject of is. Hence the following — 

SPECIAL RULES. 

869. Rule 1. — One verb being the subject (592) of another, is put 
in the infinitive; as, "To study is profitable" (872). 

870. Rule 2. — One verb governs another as its object, or comple- 
ment in the infinitive ; as, "Boys love to play" — "They seem to 
study" (319,-630, 4,-802). 

871. Verbs which take the infinitive as their object, are transitive verbs 
in the active voice ; and the infinitive, either alone, or modified by other 
words, is equivalent to the objective case (802). Verbs which take the 
infinitive as their complement, that is, in order to fill out or complete, as 
it were, the idea intended, are intransitive or passive verbs, which form 
a sort of modified copula between their subject and the infinitive follow- 
ing. Thus, " The watch seems to go "s" The watch is apparently going" 
(797). 

872. Rule 3. — The infinitive, as the subject or the object of a verb, 
sometimes has a subject of its own in the objective case. 

873. In either construction, the infinitive, with its subject, is an abridged 
dependent clause (653) and when used as the subject, is introduced by 
for. Thus, Subject — "For us to do so would be improper,"="That we 
should do so would be improper." Object — U I know him to be an honest 
man"="I know that he is an honest man." Here the object of know is 
neither him, nor to be, &c, separately, but the whole clause, "him to be 
an honest man," taken together, equivalent to, "that he is an honest 
man." 

874. In many such sentences, the subject of the infinitive resembles 
the direct, and the infinitive itself the indirect object of the preceding 
verb, as in the construction (810). Hence, when the verb is changed into 
the passive form, the objective after the active verb (which is also the 
subject of the infinitive), becomes the nominative to the passive verb, and 
the infinitive remains after it, like the indirect object (811). Thus, Active, 
"I desired him to go." — Passive, " He was desired to go." 



188 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

875. Rule 4. — The infinitive is used as a predicate nominative 
after any 'verb as a copula (597) ; as, " You are to blame " (397). 

876* When used as a predicate nominative after the verb to be, the in- 
finitive denotes — 

1. An equivalent expression; as, "To obey is to enjoy" 

2. What is possible or obligatory ; as, "Gold is to be found in Califor- 
nia " — " The laws are to be observed." 

3. What is settled and determined upon, and of course, future ; as, 
"The ship is to sail to-morrow." 

877. Rule 5. — To, the sign of the infinitive, is not used after the 
verbs bid, dare, need, make, see, hear, feel, and let in the active 
voice, nor after let m the passive ; as, "I saw him do it" — "You 
need not go" — "He was let go." 

878. To this rule there are some exceptions. As it relates only to 
euphony and usage, to may be inserted when harshness will not thereby 
be produced; thus, "Conscious that his opinions need to be disguised." — 
McKenzie. 

879. For the same reason, to is sometimes omitted after the verbs 
perceive, behold, observe, have, and Jcnotc. 

880. When several infinitives come together in the same construction, 
the sign to expressed with the first, is sometimes omitted before those 
that follow ; thus, " It is better to be a king and die, than to live and be 
a prince." This should never be done when either harshness or obscurity 
would be the result. 

881. To, the sign of the infinitive, should never be used for the infini- 
tive itself. Thus, "I have not written, and I do not intend to" is a col- 
loquial vulgarism for, "I have not written, and I do not intend to write.''' 

882. Rule 6. — The infinitive is used to express the purpose, end, 
or design of the preceding act; as, "Some who came to scoff, re- 
mained to pray." Here, to scoff, and to pray are not governed by 
came and remained; but are put without a governing word, to ex- 
press the end for which they came and remained. 

8 88. This construction of the infinitive is sometimes preceded by the 
phrase, "in order;" and formerly was preceded by for ; as, "What went 
ye out for to see?" This is now obsolete. 

881. Rule 7. — In comparisons, the infinitive mood is put after 
so as, too, or than; as, "Be so good as to read this letter " — "Too 
old to learn" — "Wiser than to undertake it." — Some consider this 
construction as elliptical, and that the infinitive depends on a word 
understood. 

885. The infinitive is sometimes used to assign, in an abridged form, 
the reason of that which goes before; as, "Base coward that thou art! 
to fee! " " Ungrateful man ! to waste my fortune, rob rne of my peace," 
&c. — "Must not one sigh, to reflect on so grave a subject." 



SYNTA X — I N F I N I T I V E . 189 

$$&» The infinitive is sometimes put absolutely, without a governing 
word; as, "To say the truth, I was in fault." 

8S7. The infinitive is sometimes omitted ; as, "I consider him [fofa] an 
honest man." 

888. The verb have, followed by the infinitive, sometimes expresses 
obligation or necessity ; as, " We have to c?o it," that is, "We must do it.'' 

889. In parsing, the infinitive, in these several constructions, may be 

briefly stated thus: "The infinitive as the subject of " — "as the object 

of " — "as the predicate-nominative after " — "The infinitive of 

purpose — comparison — cause — used absolutely." 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

There is but little liability to err in the use of this mood, except in its 
tense (920, 921), and in the improper use or omission of the sign to. 
When there is no rule to authorise the omission, it should be inserted. 

(865) Strive learn. — They obliged him do it. — You ought 
not walk so fast. — (869) It is better live on a little than outlive 
a great deal. — It is better to be a king and die than live and be 
a prince. — (870) He scorns either to temporize, or deceive, or 
be guilty of evasion. 

(877) You need not to be so serious. — I have seen some 
young persons to conduct themselves very discreetly. — He bid 
me to go home. — The boys were all let to go at once. — Let no 
man to think too highly of himself. — They all heard him to say 
it. — He was heard say it by everybody. — Some one saw them 
to pass the house. — They were seen pass the house. — I have 
observed some satirists to use the term. — Dare be wise. — They 
were bid come into the house. — (881) Be sure to write yourself, 
and tell him to. — I strive to live as God designed me to. 

Point out the use of the infinitive in the following correct sentences, 
and show how it is governed. 

It too often happens that to be above the reach of want just 
places us within the reach of avarice. — It does no good to preach 
generosity, or even justice, to those who have neither sense nor 
sou l. — He was born to be great. — To accomplish these ends, 
savages resort to cunning. — They thought to make themselves 
rich. — Great desires are difficult to be gratified. — Some people 
are difficult to please. — To know ourselves, we must commence 
by knowing our own weaknesses. — If we have not always time 
to read, we have always time to reflect. — To be or not to be ? 
that is the question. — I do well to be angry. — Whatsoever thy 
hand findeth to do, do it with thy might. — Having food to eat 
and raiment to put on, be content. 



190 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

THE PARTICIPLES. 
800, Rule XVI. — Participles have the construction 
of nouns, adjectives, and verbs (452, &c.) 

891. The participle as a noun, in the nominative case, may be the 
subject of a verb (762), or the predicate-nominative after it (798) ; 
as, "Saying is not doing" In the objective case, it may be the ob- 
ject of a transitive verb (802), or preposition (819) ; as, "Avoid do- 
ing evil." — u There is pleasure in doing good." 

892. In a substantive phrase, a noun following the present or perfect 
participle (as well as the infinitive 199) of a copulative verb (604), is in 
the predicate-nominative; as, "His being an expert dancer " — "The crime 
of being a young man" &c. 

893. The participle, as an adjective, expresses an attribute, of a 
noun or pronoun, without affirmation ; as, " The sword hangs rust- 
ing on the wall." 

894. The participle, while used as a noun or adjective, may be 
modified in all respects as the verb (630). 

895. To participles used in these ways, the rules of syntax for nouns, 
adjectives and verbs, may of course be applied. 

SPECIAL RULES. 

896. Rule 1. — When the present or perfect participle is used as a 
noun, a noun before it is put in the possessive case (841) ; as, u Much 
depends on the pupil's composing frequently." — "John's having done 
so is evident." 

89?. But a pronoun, in this construction, must be the possessive 
pronoun, and not the possessive case ; as, " Much depends on your 
composing," &c. ; not yours. 

898. In many cases, the nominative or the objective before the pres- 
ent participle as an adjective, will express nearly the same idea. Thus, 
"Much will depend on the pupil's composing," and "Much will depend 
on the pupil composing," mean substantially the same thing. Still, the 
construction is different : in the first, the dependence is on the composing, 
in the second it is on the pupil ; and though in these examples the sense 
is nearly ihe same, yet there are often examples in which the sense is entirely 
different. Thus, "What do you think of my horse's running to-day?" 
implies he has run, and asks, "How do you think he ran?" But "What 
do you thiuk of my horse running to-day ?" implies he has not run, and 
asks, "Do you think he should run?" 

899. Rule 2. — When the present participle, used as a noun, has 
an article or adjective before it, the preposition of follows ; as, 
" By the observing of these rules." — " This was a complete forsaking 
of the truth." 



SYNTAX — PARTICIPLES. 191 

900. In this construction, the participle becomes simply a noun, and can 
not be modified as a verb. Hence we can not say, " By the observing 
carefully of these rules ;" because the adverb carefully can not modify a 
noun. But we can say, u By the careful observing of," &c. ; because 
careful, being an adjective, can modify a noun. Or we can say, u By ob- 
serving these rules carefully," &c. ; because the and of being both removed 
observing can be modified as a verb (922). 

901. Both the article and of may be omitted ; but not the one with- 
out the other. By this omission, the participle becomes a participial 
noun, and can be modified as the verb (462). Of can not be used when 
a preposition follows. 

902. So here, again, in either of these constructions, the sense in many 
cases will be the same. Thus, "By the observing of these rules he be- 
came eminent," and "By observing these rules he became eminent," ex- 
press the same idea. But, as in the other case (898), so here, there are 
examples in which the sense is entirely different. Thus, "He expressed 
the pleasure he had in the hearing of the philosopher," and "He ex- 
pressed the pleasure he had in hearing the philosopher," mean entirely 
different things. So "At the hearing of the ear, they will obey," and "At 
hearing the ear, they will obey." The first is sense — the last, nonsense. 

In such cases, all ambiguity will be avoided by observing the following — 

903. Rule 3. — When the verbal noun expresses something of which 
the noun following denotes the doer, it should have the article and the 
preposition ; as, " It was said in the hearing of the witness." But 
when it expresses something of which the noun following does not 
denote the doer, but the object, both should be omitted ; as, "The 
court spent some time in hearing the witness.' ' 

904. Rule 4. — The past participle, and not the past tense, should 
be used after the auxiliaries have and be ; as, "I have written" 
(not wrote) — " The letter is written" (not wrote). 

905. So, also, the past participle should not be used for the past 
tense ; as, u He ran" not run — " I saw" not seen — " I did" not done, 

906. In many verbs whose present passive expresses, not the present 
continuance of the act, but of the result of the act in a finished state, 
the present participle active has a passive as well as an active sense ; and 
is used with the auxiliary verb to be, to express the present passive pro- 
gressively; as, "The house is building" (not being built). When, in such 
verbs, the participle in ing has not a passive sense — or where the use of 
it in a passive sense would be ambiguous, a different form of expression 
should be used (456, &c.) 

907. The participle is sometimes used absolutely, having no dependence 
on any other word ; as, "Properly speaking, there is no such thing as 
chance" (769 and 110). 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

In the following sentences correct the errors, and give a reason for 
the change ; — 



192 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

(892). Its being me need make no difference. — We could 
not be sure of its being him. — The whole depended on its being 
them. 

(896) Man rebelling against his Maker, brought him into 
ruin. — Joseph having been sold by his brethren, was overruled 
for good. — God upholding all things, is an evidence of his power. 
— He being a great man did not make him a happy man. — A 
man being poor does not make him miserable. — (898) What do 
you think of my horse running to-day ? Did he run well ? — 
What think you of my horse's running to-day ? Will it be safe ? 

(899) He spends part of his time in studying of the classics. 
— By the obtaining wisdom you will command respect. — By ob- 
taining of wisdom you will command respect. — This was equal 
to a rejecting the proposal. — This was equal to rejecting of the 
proposal. — The learning anything well requires application. 
— Learning of anything w r ell requires great application. — 
Meekness is manifested in suffering of ills patiently — in the suf- 
fering ills patiently — in the suffering of ills patiently. — In the 
patient suffering ills — in patient suffering of ills. — Because of 
provoking his sons and daughters, the Lord abhorred them. — 
(903) In the hearing of the will read, and in the examining of 
sundry papers much time was spent. — The greatest pain is suf- 
fered in the cutting of the skin. 

(904) He has broke his cup. — I have drank enough. — The 
tree was shook by the wind. — The tree has fell. — Some one has 
took my pen. — I seen the man who done it. — He has began 
the work. — Some fell by the way side and was trode down. — 
The French language is spoke in every part of Europe. 

The following sentences from E. Everett, Daniel Webster, Irving, N". 
A. Review, Cooper, Bancroft, Thomas Brown, Sir G. M'Kensie, Butler, 
&c, have been changed into modern newspaper English. Restore them, 
according to (906) : — 

The fortress was being built. — The spot where this new and 
strange tragedy was being acted. — An attempt was being 
made in the English parliament. — The magnificent church now 
being erected in the city of New York. — While these things 
were being transacted in England. — While the ceremony was 
being performed. — The court was then being held. — And still 
be being done and never done. — Wheat is being sold at a fair 
price. — Gold is being found in great quantities. — A report is 
now being prepared. — Goods are now being sold off at first cost. 
— While the necessary movement was being made. 



SYNTAX — TENSES. 193 

CONNECTION OF TENSES. 
908# Kule XVII. — In the use of verbs, and words 
that in point of time relate to each other, the order Qf 
time must be observed; as, " I have known him these 
many years" — not, "I know him these many years;" 
nor, " I knew him these many years." 

909. Remark. — The particular tense necessary to be used must depend 
upon the sense, and no rules can be given that will apply to all cases. But 
it may be proper to observe — 

910. An observation which is always true must be expressed in the 
present tense ; as, "The stoics believed that 'all crimes arc equal'" (403). 

911. The present-perfect, and not the present tense should be used in 
connection with words denoting an extent of time continued to the pres? 
ent ; thus, " They continue with me now three days," should be, "have 
continued" &c. (407). 

912. The present-perfect tense ought never to be used in connection with 
words which express past time ; thus, " I have formerly mentioned his 
attachment to study," should be, " I formerly mentioned," &c. 

913. To express an event simply as past, without relation to any other 
point of time than the present, or as taking place at a certain past time 
mentioned, the past tense is used ; as, "God created the world." — "In 
the beginning, God created the world." Exercises in (912) are examples. 

914. When we wish to represent an event as past at or before a certain 
past time referred to, the verb must be put in the past-perfect tense. Thus, 
when we say, " The vessel had arrived at nine o'clock," we mean, at nine 
o'clock the arriving of the vessel was past. But when we say, " The 
vessel arrived at nine o'clock," we mean, the arriving of the vessel was 
then present. 

915. It is always essential to the use of this tense that the event be 
past at the time referred to. It is proper to notice here, also, that in 
pointing out the time of a past event, two points or periods of time are 
often mentioned — the one for the purpose of ascertaining the other. Thus, 
" We arrived an hour before sunset." Here the past-perfect is not used, 
though the arriving is represented as past before a past time mentioned, 
viz., simset, because sunset is not the time referred to, but is mentioned in 
order to describe that time ; and at the time described, the event, arriv- 
ing, was not past, but present. If in this example we omit the word 
" hour," and merely say ^before sunset," the construction will be the same. 
This will show that it is correct to say, "Before I went to France I visited 
England," because the visiting of England is represented as present, and 
not past at the time indicated by the word before. But if the event men- 
tioned is represented as past at the time indicated by the word before, or 
if the sentence is so arranged that only one point of past time is indi- 
cated at which the event referred to is past, the past-perfect must be used ; 
as, " They had arrived before we sailed." — " They arrived after we had 
sailed." — " Ihad visited England when we returned to America." 

9 



194 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

916. The present and the past of the auxiliaries, shall, will, may, can, 
should never be associated in the same sentence ; and care must be taken 
that the subsequent verb be expressed in the same tense with the antece- 
dent verb (344) ; thus, " I may or can do it now, if I choose "— " I might 
or could do it now, if I chose "— " I shall or will do it, when I can "— " I 
may do it if I caw"— "I once cozdd do it, but I would not"—" I would 
have done it then, but I could not."— ■" I mention it to him, that he may 
stop if he choose "— " I mentioned it to him, that he might stop if he 
c h ose »_« I have mentioned it to him, that he may stop "— " I had men- 
tioned it to him, that he might stop"— " I had mentioned it to him, that 
he might have stopped had he chosen." 

917. In dependent clauses, the past-perfect indicative or potential is 
used to express an event antecedent to, but never contemporary with, or 
subsequent to, that expressed by a verb in the past tense in the leading 
clause. Thus, we can say, "I believed he had done it," but not, "I 
hoped he had done it ;" because belief may refer to what is past, but hope 
always refers to something future. See also the infinitive (920, 921). 

918. When should is used instead of ought, to express present duty 
(363), it may be followed by the present or present-perfect; as, u You 
should study, that you may become learned." 

919. The indicative present is frequently used after the words when, 
till before, as soon as, after, to express the relative time of a future action 
(406) ; as, " When he comes, he will be welcome." When placed before 
the present-perfect indicative, these words denote the completion of a future 
action or event ; as, " He will never be better till he has felt the pangs 
of poverty." 

920. A* verb in the infinitive mood must be in the present tense (446), 
when it expresses what is contemporary in point of time with its govern- 
ing verb, or subsequent to it ; as, " He appeared to be a man of letters. 
— " The apostles were determined to preach the gospel." Hence, verbs 
denoting hope, desire, intention, or command, must be followed by the 
present infinitive, and not by the perfect (451). 

921. But the perfect infinitive must be used to express what is antece- 
dent to the time of the governing verb; as, "Romulus is said to have 
founded Rome." 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

(910) The doctor said that fever always produced thirst.— 
The philospher said that heat always expanded metals. — He 
said that truth was immutable. 

(911) I know the family more than twenty years. — lam now 
at school six months.— My brother was sick four weeks, and is 
no better.— He tells lies long enough.— They continue with me 
now three days. 

(912) He has lately lost an only son. — He has been formerly 
very disorderly. — I have been at London last year, and seen 
the king last summer. — I have once or twice told the story to 



S YNT AX — ADVERBS. 195 

our friend before he went away. — He has done it yesterday. — 
Some one has long ago told the same story. 

(914) After Columbus made his preparations, he set out on 
his voyage of discovery. — When we finished our lessons we 
went out to play. — He that was dead sat up and began to speak. 
— When we had arrived at the palace, we delivered the letters 
which we previously procured. — It was a strange thing to me, 
for I never saw such a thing before. — When I came, he was 
gone. 

(916) I should be obliged to him if he will gratify me in 
that particular. — Ye will not come to me, that ye might have 
life. — Be wise and good that you might be happy. — He was told 
his danger, that he may shun it. 

(917) We had hoped that Lord Nugent would have been 
able to collect much new and interesting information. — Colum- 
bus hoped that he would have rendered the natives tributary to 
the crown of Spain. — We expected that they would have come. 

(918) He should study diligently, that he might become 
learned. — We should respect those persons, because they con- 
tinued long attached to us. 

(919) We shall welcome him when he shall arrive. — As 
soon as he shall return we will recommence our studies. — A 
prisoner is not accounted guilty till he be convicted. 

(920) From the little conversation I had with him, he ap- 
peared to have been a man of learning. — Our friends intended 
to have met us. — He was afraid he would have died. 

(921) Kirstall abbey, now in ruins, appears to be an exten- 
sive building. — Lycurgus, the Spartan law-giver, is said to be 
born in the nine hundred and twenty-sixth year before Christ. 



CONSTRUCTION OF ADVERBS. 

922. Rule XVIII. — Adverbs modify verbs, adjec- 
tives, and other adverbs ; as, " John speaks distinctly, 
he is remarkably diligent, and reads very correctly" 

[See Etymology of Adverbs, 523, &c] 

923. A few adverbs sometimes modify nouns or pronouns (526) ; 
as, "Not only the men, but the women also, were present." — "I, even 
I, do bring a flood." — Gen. vi. 17. 



196 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

921. Sometimes an adverb modifies a preposition, and sometimes an ad- 
junct or clause of a sentence (525); as, "He sailed nearly round the 
giobe " — u Just below the ear " — " Verily I say unto you." 

SPECIAL RULES. 

925. Rule 1. — Adverbs should not bemused as adjectives, nor adjec- 
tives as adverbs (686, 687). 

Thus, " The above [preceding] extract." — " It seems strangely [strange]," 
— u We arrived safely [safe']. 11 — "He writes beautiful [beautifxdly]" 

Remark. — Though it is perhaps never necessary to use an adverb as an 
adjective ; yet, the authority of good writers has so far sanctioned the 
violation of this rule in certain cases, that remonstrance would be una- 
vailing. Thus, such phrases as the following are common, " The above 
rule;" — "the then ministry;" — "For very age;" — "the hither side ;"— 
" thine often infirmities," and the like. Adverbs so used should of course 
be reckoned adjectives and parsed as such. 

926. The adverbs hence, thence, ichence, meaning from this place, from 
that place, from which place, properly should not have from before them, 
because it is implied. But the practice of the best writers has so sanc- 
tioned the use of it, that the omission of it would now sometimes appear 
stiff and affected. 

927. After verbs of motion, the adverbs hither, thither, whither, are 
now used only in solemn style. In ordinary discourse, here, there, and 
where, are used instead of them; as, "We came here" — " They walked 
ffcft'Uats Where did he go ?" 

928. Where should not be used for in which, except the reference is 
to place. Thus, " They framed a protestation, where [better, in which] 
they repeated their former claims." 

929. The adverbs noiv, then, when, where, in such phrases as till now, 
till then, since when, to where, &c, are sometimes used by good writers as 
nouns. This, however, is rare in prose, and should not be imitated. In 
poetry it is more common ( 1048). 

930. Of this character are the expressions at once, far from hence, &c, 
but these are now established idioms, and in parsing are regarded as one 
word (535-6). 

931. There, properly an adverb of place, is often used as an introduc- 
tory expletive ; as, " There came to the beach " (529). 

932. Rule 2. — Two negatives in the same clause are equivalent to 

an affirmative, and should not be used unless affirmation is intended; 

as, "I can not drink no [any] more," or, " I can drink no more." 

Remark. — But a repetition of the negation by independent negative 
words or phrases, or by transferring the word neither to the end of the 
clause, usually strengthens the negation; as, "There is none righteous, 
no, not one." — " He will never consent, not he, nor I neither" 

933. One negative is sometimes connected with another implied in the 
negative prefixes dis, un, im, in, it, ir, &c. ; as, " You are not unacquain- 
ted with his merits," that is, "You are acquainted," &c. In this way a 



SYNTAX — ADVERBS. 197 

pleasing variety of expression is sometimes produced. But the word only 
with the negative, preserves the negation ; as, " He was not only illiberal, 
but even covetous-" 

934. The adverbs nay, no, yea, yes, often stand alone as a negative or 
an affirmative answer to a question ; as, " Will he go f" — "No"—" He will 
not go." — " Is he at home?" — "Yes"= u He is at home." Amen is an 
affirmative verb, equivalent to "Be it so," or "May it be so." 

935. No, before a noun, is an adjective; as, "No man." Before an 
adjective or adverb in the comparative degree, it is an adverb ; as, "No 
taller" — "No sooner." In all other cases the proper negative is not ; as, 
" He will not come " — " Whether he come or not." 

POSITION. 

936. Rule 3. — Adverbs are for Hie most part placed before adjec- 
tives, after a verb in the simple form, and after the first auxiliary 
in the compound form; as, "He is very attentive, behaves well, and 
is much esteemed.'* 

937. This rule applies generally to adverbial adjunct phrases as 
well as to adverbs (825). 

938. This is to be considered only as a general rule, to which there are 
many exceptions. Indeed, no rule for the position of the adverb can be 
given, which is not liable to exceptions. That order is the best which 
conveys the meaning with most precision. In order to this, the adverb 
is sometimes placed before the verb, or at some distance after it. 

939. Never, often, ahoays, sometimes, generally precede the verb. Not, 
with the participle or infinitive, should generally be placed before it (500). 

940. The improper position of the adverb only often occasions ambi- 
guity. This will generally be avoided when it refers to a sentence or 
clause, by placing it at the beginning of that sentence or clause ; when 
it refers to a predicate, by placing it before the predicated term ; and 
when it refers to a subject, by placing it after its name or description ; as, 
u Only acknowledge thine iniquity." — " The thoughts of his heart are 
only evil." — " Take nothing for your journey but a staff only." These 
observations will generally be applicable to the words merely, solely, 
chiefly, first, at least, and perhaps to a few others. 

941. In prose, to, the sign of the infinitive, or rather a part of it, should 
never be separated by placing au adverb immediately after it. Thus, 

" They are accustomed to carefidly study their lessons," should be "to 
study carefully ," or "carefully to study," &c. 

94*2. The adverb enough is commonly placed after the adjective which 
it modifies ; as, U A large enough house" — "A house large enough for all." 

943. Ever and never are sometimes improperly confounded ; thus, "Sel- 
dom or ever," should be " Seldom or never," or* '" Seldom if ever." Ever 
so, referring to quantity or degree, means in whatsoever degree. Hence 
" Charming never so wisely," should be " ever so wisely." So, "Ever so 
much " "ever so wise," &c. 



198 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

As adverbs are indeclinable, mistakes are liable to be made chiefly in 
their position, or in using as adverbs words that are not so, or in using 
adverbs where other words are required. Correct the errors in the fol- 
lowing : — 

(925) They hoped for a soon and prosperous issue to the war. 
— The then emperor was noted for his cruelty. — He was be- 
friended by the then reigning duke. — She walks graceful. — He 
spoke eloquent. — She did that work good. — Our friends arrived 
safely. — The boat moves rapid. — His expressions sounded 
harshly. — She is a remarkable pretty girl. — My foot slipped, 
and I pretty near fell down. 

(926) He departed from thence into a desert place. — I will 
send thee far from hence to the Gentiles. — From hence ! away ! 

(927) Where art thou gone ? — And he said unto me, " Come 
up here." — The city is near, oh ! let me escape there. — Where 
I am, there ye can not come. 

(928) He drew up a petition, where he represented his own 
merit. — The condition where I found him was deplorable. — He 
went to London last year, since when I have not seen him. 

(932) I can not do no more He will never be no taller. — He 

did not say nothing at all. — Neither he nor no one else can do 
that. — I have received no information on the subject, neither 
from him nor from his friend. — I never did repent for doing 
good, nor shall not now. — I can not see to write no more. — 
Nothing never can justify ingratitude. — (935) Be so kind us to 
tell me whether he will do it or no. 

(936) We should not be overcome totally by present events. 
— We always should prefer our duty to our pleasure. — It is im- 
possible continually to be at work. — Not only he found her em- 
ployed, but pleased and tranquil also. — In the proper disposition 
of adverbs, the ear carefully requires to be consulted as well as 
the sense. — They seemed to be nearly dressed alike. — (937) I 
wished that any one would hang me a hundred times. 

(938) The women contributed all their rings and jewels vol- 
untarily, to assist the government. — He determined to invite 
back the king, and to call together his friends. — (939) Having 
not known or having not considered the measures proposed, he 
failed of success. 

(940) Theism can only be opposed to polytheism. — By great- 
ness, I do not only mean the bulk of any single object, but the 



SYNTAX — CONJUNCTIONS. 199 

distinctness of a whole view. — Only you have I known of all 
the nations of the earth. — In promoting the public good, we 
only discharge our duty. — He only read one book, not two. — 
He read the book only, but did not keep it. — He only read the 
book, but not the letter. — He chiefly spoke of virtue, not of vice. 
— He only reads English, not French. 

(941) Scholars should be taught to carefully scrutinize the 
sentiments advanced in the books they read. — To make this 
sentence perspicuous, it will be necessary to entirely remodel it. 



CONSTRUCTION OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

914. Rule XIX. — Conjunctions connect words, 

PHRASES, or SENTENCES (561). 

915. Words of the same class, having a similar relation to another 
word to which they belong, are connected by a conjunction. Thus — 

1. Nouns or pronouns; as, "James and John and iare here." 

2. Adjectives; as, "A prudent, brave, and honorable man." 

3. Verbs ; as, " Caesar came and saw and conquered" 

4. Adverbs, or adverbs and adjuncts; as, "He won the prize fairly 

and honorably" or "fairly and with honor" or with fairness and 
with honor" 

5. Prepositions ; as, "To and from the city " — "Up and down the hill." 

946. Verbs connected have the same nominative; as, " James reads 
and writes." 

947. Nouns or pronouns connected in the nominative case, either as 
subjects or attributes, are related as such to the same verb ; as, "John 
and James are cousins." — " He is a gentleman and a scholar" 

948. Nouns or pronouns connected in the possessive case are governed 
by the same noun ; as, "John's and James's books." 

949. Nouns or pronouns, connected in the objective case, are governed 
by the same verb or preposition; as, u He studies grammar and logic" — 
u Give the books to him and me." 

950. When nominatives belong to different verbs, or verbs to different 
nominatives, the conjunction connects the sentences, not the words ; as, 
"John reads and James writes." 

951. Simple sentences or clauses are connected by conjunctions, 
so as to form one compound sentence ; as, "I said that ye are gods; 
but ye shall die." 

952. Similar sentences, whether dependent or independent, are con- 
nected by the conjunctions and, or, nor, but, yet, &c. 

953. Dependent members or clauses are connected with their leading 
clauses by such conjunctions, or other connective words, as may properly 
indicate the relation intended (962 and 968). 



200 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

954» Conjunctions are frequently understood between the words or 
sentences connected; as, " Cmsar ca?ne, saw, and conquered.'' 1 — " The -men, 
women, and children, were present." — " It is the part of those that are 
great, to give — of those that are poor, to ask." — " Learning collects mate- 
rials; wisdom applies them." 

SPECIAL RULES. 

955# Rule 1. — Conjunctions connect the same moods and tenses of 
verbs, and cases of nouns and pronouns ; as, "Do good, and seek 
peace." — " Honor thy father and mother. 11 

[This rale applies to the infinitive and participles.] 

956. Yerbs of the same mood and tense, under this rule, are generally 
also in the same form (474) ; as, " He reads and writes 11 (not, does write). 

957. Yerbs in different clauses, connected by a conjunction, but having 
a different construction, may be in different moods and tenses ; as, " I 
read that I may learn " 

958. When two or more verbs in the compound tenses, or in the pro- 
gressive or emphatic form, or in the passive voice, are connected, the 
auxiliary expressed with the first, may be understood to the rest ; as, 
"He can neither read nor write. 1 ' — " Diligence should be commended and 
rewarded 11 Still, however, the repetition of the auxiliary is often more 
emphatic ; as, " They shall come, and they shall declare his truth.'' 

959. Yerbs o( the same mood, tense, or form, connected as a com- 
pound predicate (627), have the nominative expressed with the first, and 
understood to the rest ; as, " Cossar came, saw, and conquered. 11 But — 

960. When verbs connected are not of the same mood, tense, or form, 
and especially if contrast or opposition, expressed by but, though, yet, is 
intended, the nominative is frequently repeated; as, "He came, but he 
would not stay." But still — 

961. This is to be regarded only as a general direction, in accordance 
with, perhaps, the majority of cases, but to which, as a rule, there are 
many exceptions. The object aimed at is to secure euphony and perspi- 
cuity ; and when these are preserved without repeating the nominative, 
it may be omitted ; as, " The two charges had been, and still are, united 
in one person." — North British Review. 

962. After expressions implying doubt, fear, or denial, the conjunction 
that is properly used — not lest, but, but that; as, "I do not doubt that 
he is honest." — " I am afraid that he will die." Also, what should never 
be used for that. Thus, " He will not believe but what I am to blame," 
Bhould be, " but that I am to blame." 

963. Rule 2. — Certain words in the antecedent member of a sen- 
tence, require corresponding connectives in the subsequent one; thus — 

1, In clauses or words simply connected — 

Both requires and (567); as, "Both he and I came." 

Either or (570); as, "Either he or I will come." 

Neither nor (570); as, "Neither he nor I came." 

Whether or; as, "Whether he or I came." 



SYNTAX — CON J UNCTIONS. 201 

Though yet ; as, "Though he slay me, yet will I trust in 

him." 

Not only but also; as, "Not only he but also his brother 

goes." 
2. In clauses connected so as to imply comparison — 

The comparative degree requires than ; as, M He is taller than I am." 
Other requires than ; as, " It is no other than he." 

j% se . than ; as, u What else do you expect than this?" 

j± s _ . as (expressing equality); as, " He is as tall as lam." 

jis . so (expressing equality) ; as, "As thy day is, so shall 

thy strength be." 

g as (with a negative, expressing inequality); as, " He 

is not so learned as his brother." 

So that (expressing consequence) ; as, " He is so weak 

that he can not walk." 

g uch a s (expressing similarity) ; as, " He or such as he." 

^ llc / t tJiai (with a finite verb, to express a consequence) ; 

* as. " The difference is such that all will per- 
ceive it. 
For as and so, in comparison, see 531. For as, sometimes regarded as 
a relative, see 271— as a connective of words in apposition, 674. For 
the infinitive after so — as, see 884. 

964. And, or, nor, do not require the corresponding antecedent, and 
though does not always require yet. By poetic license (1048-6), or and 
nor are sometimes used as antecedents, instead of either, neither (570). 

965. In sentences implying comparison, there is commonly an 
ellipsis in the second member, after than and as; " My punishment 
is greater than [that is which] I can bear."— " My punishment is as 
great as [that is which] I can bear." And sometimes in sentences 
not implying comparison, after though and if; as, " Though [it is] 
coarse, it is good."— 41 He is kind, if [lie is] sincere " (978-7). 

986. A relative after than is put in the objective case; as, "Satan, 
than whom none higher sat." This anomaly may be regarded as a case 
of simple stallage (1044-4). 

967. Rcle 3.— When a subsequent clause or part of a sentence is 
common to two different but connected antecedent clauses, it mustbe 
equally applicable to both ; as, M That work always has been, and 
always will be, admired."—" He is as tall, though not so handsome, 
as his brother." 

968. When this rule is violated, the correction is made, either— 

1 Bv altering one of the antecedent clauses, so that the subsequent 
may be applicable to both. Thus, " The story has and will be believed,' 
is not correct, because, though we can say, will be believed, we can riot 
say, has be believed. It should be, "The story has been, and will be be- 
lieved," or — 9 * 



202 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. If this can not be done, we may complete the construction of the 
first part by annexing its appropriate subsequent, and leave the subse* 
quent of the second understood. Thus, u He was more beloved but not 
so much admired as Cynthio," is not correct, because we can not say, 
"He was more beloved as Cynthio." It should be, u He was more be- 
loved than Cynthio, but not so much admired." 

969. The principle of this rule applies to the appropriate selection of 
words as well as to their construction; thus, "This doctrine is founded 
and consistent with the truth," should be, " founded upon y and consistent 
with" &c. 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

In the following sentences point out the conjunctions, the words or 
sentences connected by them — see whether they correspond, according 
to the rules, and if not, correct and give a reason for the change. 

(955) He reads and wrote well. — Anger glances into the 
breast of a wise man, but will rest only in the bosom of fools. — 
If he understand the subject and attends to it, he can scarcely 
fail of success. — Enjoying health and to live in peace are great 
blessings. — Be more anxious to acquire knowledge than about 
showing it. — Be more anxious about acquiring knowledge than 
to show it. 

You and me are great friends. — This is a small matter between 
you and I. — My father and him are very intimate. — He is taller 
than me ;" but I am older than him. 

(956) He reads and writeth well. — He reads and does write 
well. — He reads and is writing well. — Does he not read and 
writes well ? — Did he not tell thee his fault, and entreated thee 
to forgive him ? — Earth hath her solitudes, and so has life. 

(958) He can neither read nor can write. — I will come and 
will see you, and will tell you the whole story. — He should have 
written, or should have sent, or should have come himself. 

(960) Can these persons consent to such a proposal, and will 
consent to it? — How distinguished for talents he is, and how 
useful might be. — He might have been happy and now is con- 
vinced of it. — He could command his temper, though would not. 

(962) I do not deny but he has merit. — They were afraid 
lest you would be offended. — We were apprehensive lest some 
accident had happened to him. We can not deny but what he 
was ill-treated. — We can not doubt but what he is well. — I can 
not see but what he is well. 

(963-1) It is neither cold or hot. — It is so clear as I need 
not explain it. — The relations are so uncertain, as that they re- 



SYNTAX — INTERJECTIONS. 203 

quire much examination. — The one is equally deserving as the 
other. — I must be so candid to own that I have been mistaken. 
— He would not do it himself nor let me do it. — He was as an- 
gry as he could not speak. — So as thy days so shall thy strength 
be. — Though he slay me so will I trust in him. — He must go 
himself or send his servant. — There is no condition so secure as 
can not admit of change. — He is not as eminent and as much 
esteemed as he thinks himself to be. 

(963-2) He has little c more of the scholar besides the name. 
— Be ready to succor such persons who need thy assistance. — 
They had no sooner risen but they applied themselves to their 
studies.— These savage people seemed to have no other element 
but war. — Such men that act treacherously ought to be avoided. 
— He gained nothing further by his speech, but only to be com- 
mended for his eloquence. — This is none other but the gate of 
Paradise. 

(967) I always have and I always shall be of this opinion. — 
He is bolder but not so wise as his companion. — Sincerity is as 
valuable and even more so than knowledge. — Their intentions 
might and probably were good. — The reward has already or will 
hereafter be given to him.- — Will it be urged that these books 
are as old or even older than tradition. — This book is preferable 
and cheaper than the other. — He takes no care nor interest in 
the matter. 



INTERJECTIONS. 

970. Rule XX. — Interjections have no grammatical 
connection with the other words in a sentence (556). 

971. After interjections, pronouns of the first person are com- 
monly in the objective case ; those of the second, in the nominative ; 
as, u Ah me !"— " thou !" 

972. In neither of these, however, does the case depend on the inter- 
jection. The objective is commonly thought to be governed by a word 
understood; thus, "Ah [pity] me!" — "Ah [what will become of] me!" 
The nominative is commonly the nominative of the person addressed (IIS). 

GENERAL RULE. 

973. In every sentence, the words employed, and the 
order in which they are arranged, should be such as 
clearly and properly to express the idea intended; and 



204 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

at the same time, all the parts of the sentence should cor- 
respond, and a regular and dependent construction be 
preserved throughout. 

974. This may be regarded as a general rule, applicable to every case, 
and therefore comprehending all the preceding. Though these are so full 
and minute as to embrace almost everything belonging to the proper 
construction of sentences, yet there will sometimes occur instances of 
impropriety in the use, and arrangement, and connection of words, for 
the avoiding or correcting of which no very specific rule can be given. 

975. Among the evils to be guarded against under this general rule, 
are the following : — 

1. The use of words which do not correctly or properly convey the 

idea intended, or which convey another with equal propriety. 

2. The arrangement of words and clauses in such a way, that their re- 

lation to other words and clauses is doubtful, or difficult te be 
perceived. 

3. The separating of adjuncts (541) from their principals, and placing 

them so that they may be joined to words to which they do not 
belong (832). 

4. The separating of relative clauses improperly from their antecedents 

(755 and 759). 

5. Using injudiciously, or too frequently, the third personal or possess- 

ive pronoun, especially in indirect discourse (1130). 

EXERCISES. 

The following sentences are not grammatically incorrect, but from 
some of the causes mentioned above, are obscure, inelegant, ambiguous, 
or unintelligible. Let the pupil point out the error and correct it, and 
give a reason for the correction. 

The son said to his father that he had sinned against Heaven. 
— A farmer went to a lawyer, and told him that his bull had 
gored his ox. — The Greeks fearing to be surrounded on all sides 
wheeled about and halted with the river on their backs. — Nor 
was Philip wanting to corrupt Demosthenes, as he had most of 
the leading men of Greece. — Parmenio had served, with great 
fidelity, Philip the father of Alexander, as well as himself, for 
whom he first opened the way into Asia.— Belisarius was gene- 
ral of all the forces under Justinian the First, a man of rare 
valor. — Lysias promised his father never to abandon his friends. 
— Carthage was demolished to the ground so that we are unable 
to say where it stood, at this day. — Thus ended the war with 
AntiochuSj twelve years after the second Punic war, and two 
after it had been begun.— Claudius was canonized among the 
gods, who scarcely deserved the name of a man. 



SYNTAX — ELLIPSIS. 205 

976. Another class of improprieties arises from the improper omission 
of words, by which the grammatical construction of a sentence is broken 
up. As a general rule, the fewer the words are by which we express our 
ideas, the better, provided the meaning is clearly brought out. This may 
often be done without using all the words necessary to the full grammat- 
ical form of a sentence, and hence, as the tendency always is to abbre- 
viate speech, such words as can be spared, according to the usage of the 
language, are properly omitted. This omission is called 

ELLIPSIS (1044-1). 

Respecting the use of this figure, nothing more definite can be laid 
down than what is contained in the following 

SPECIAL RULES. 

977* Rule 1. — An ellipsis, or omission of words, is admissible 
when they can be supplied by the mind with such certainty and readi- 
ness as not to obscure the sense. Thus — 

Instead of saying, " He was a learned man, and he was a wise 
man, and he was a good man," we may say, u He was a learned, 
wise, and good man." 

978, According to common usage, an ellipsis of the different parts 
of speech is allowed in the following cases, viz.: — 

1. Noun and Pronoun. — When two or more things are asserted of the 
same subject, the noun or pronoun is expressed before the first verb, and 
omitted before the rest. Also, when the same noun or pronoun is the 
object of several verbs, it is omitted after all except the last ; as, "Hove, 
fear, and respect him," instead of, "I love him, /fear him, and /respect 
him." 

2. A noun is frequently omitted after the comparative degree ; as, " I 
will pull down my barns, and build greater [barns]." 

3. When two or more adjectives qualify the same noun, the noun is 
omitted after all except the last ; as, "A great, wise, and good man" for 
U A great man, a wise man, and a good man." 

4. Adjective and Article. — When an adjective qualifies two or more 
nouns, it is omitted before all except the first only; as, "Good qualities 
and actions" — "Happy boys and girls" — " He is an honest, learned, and 
well-bred man," for, "an honest, a learned, and a well-bred man." 

5. Verbs. — A verb is often omitted after its subject, preceded by the 
comparative degree; as, "He is wiser than I [aw] " — U I am younger 
than he [is]." 

6. When several clauses come together, having the same predicate 
verb, the verb is often expressed in the first, and omitted in the rest ; as, 
u The Italians have imitated the Latins; the English, the Italians; and 
the Americans, the English." Sometimes it is omitted in the first, and 
expressed in the last ; as, " Not only men, but nations, imitate one an- 
other." 



206 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

7. The verb to be, with its subject, in dependent clauses, is often omitted 
after the connectives, if, though, yet, when, &c. ; as, " Study, if [it is] 
neglected, becomes irksome." — "Though [he was] poor, he was honest" 
(965). 

8. In poetry, verbs which express address or answer, are often omitted ; 
as, " To him the prince [replied]." Also, when the words connected 
readily indicate what the verb must be, if expressed ; as, " I'll hence to 
London " — " I'll in" — "Away, old man !" — Shales. — u Up, up, Glenarkin !" 
— W. Scott. 

9. The verb is often omitted in the second clause of a sentence after 
the auxiliary, when the same verb is used in the first clause ; as, " You 
have read, but I have not [read]." Also, verbs connected in the same 
voice, mood, and tense, having the auxiliary with the first, omit it with 
the rest; as, " He will be loved and respected for his virtues." 

10. Adverb, — When an adverb modifies more words than one, it is 
placed only with the last ; as, "He spoke and acted gracefully." 

11. Preposition. — When the same preposition connects two or more 
subsequent terms of a relation with one antecedent term, it is usually 
omitted before all except the first; as, "Over the hills and the valleys "— 
"Through woods and wilds." 

12. Conjunction. — When several words and clauses come together in 
the same construction, the conjunction is sometimes omitted entirely, 
sometimes between each pair, and sometimes before all except the last ; 
as, " He caused the blind to see, the lame to walk, the deaf to hear, the 
lepers to be cleansed." — " We ran hither and thither, seeking novelty 
and change — sympathy and pastime — communion and love." — " Youth is 
the season of joy, of bliss, of strength and pride." 

13. Interjection. — The interjections are never omitted, but, in the 
expression of sudden emotion, all but the most important words are com- 
monly omitted ; as, " Well done !" for, "That is well done !" Also, after 
interjections, there is often an ellipsis of the obvious word; as, "0 for a 
lodge," &c, that is, " how I long for a lodge," &c. — "A horse ! a horse I 
my kingdom for a horse !" that is, "Bring me a horse. I -would give my 
kingdom for a horse." 

919. Eule 2. — An ellipsis is not allowable, "when it would obscure 
the sentence, wealcen its force, or be attended with an impropriety ; 
as, "We speak that we do know," for that which, &c. 

980. In general, no word should be omitted by ellipsis, that is 
necessary to the usual construction or harmony of a sentence, or to 
render the meaning perspicuous. 

981. Articles, pronouns, and prepositions, should always be repeated 
when the words with which they stand connected are used emphatically. 
Under such circumstances, even nouns, adjectives, and verbs, must often 
be repeated ; as, " Not only the year, but the day and the hour were ap- 
pointed." 

982. It is generally improper, except in poetry, to omit the antecedent 
to a relative ; and it is always so, to omit a relative, when it is in the 
nominative. 



SYNTAX — ELLIPSIS. 207 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

In the following sentences, omit such words as are not necessary to 
the sense : — 

(977-1) Cicero was an eloquent man, an able man, a gene- 
rous man, and he was a truly patriotic man. — Avarice and cun- 
ning may gain an estate, but avarice and cunning cannot gain 
friends. — I venerate him, I respect him, I love him, on account 
of his virtues. — (977-4) He has an affectionate brother and an 
affectionate sister. — (977-6) Genuine virtue supposes our be- 
nevolence to be strengthened and to be confirmed by principle. 
— Perseverance in laudable pursuits will reward all our toils, 
and will produce effects beyond our calculation. — (977-10) We 
often commend imprudently, as well as censure imprudently. — 
(977-11) Changes are almost constantly taking place in men 
and in manners, in opinions and in customs, in private fortunes 
and in public conduct. — (977-1. 6. 9.) He is temperate, he is 
disinterested, he is benevolent. — He regards the truth, but thou 
dost not regard it. — We succeeded, but they did not succeed. 

In the following sentences, supply the words improperly omitted, and 
state why they should be restored : — 

(979) We are naturally inclined to praise who praise us, and 
to flatter who flatter us. — Who best can suffer best can do. — A 
beautiful garden and trees were sold. — His honor, interest, re- 
ligion, were all embarked in this undertaking. — Many days and 
even weeks pass away unimproved. — The captain had several 
men died in his ship. — His conduct is not scandalous, and that 
is the best can be said of it.-- -They enjoy a free constitution and 
laws. — That is a property most men have, or at least may attain. 
— This property has or will be sold. — You suppose him younger 
than I. — It requires few talents to which most men are not born, or 
at least may not acquire. — He may be said to have saved the life 
of a citizen, and consequently entitled to the reward. — The peo- 
ple of this country possess a healthy climate and soil. — I have 
purchased a house and orchard. — A noble spirit disclaineth the 
malice of fortune ; his greatness of soul is not to be cast down. 

PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES ON RULES 1 AND 2. 

The prepositfon in is set before countries, cities, and large towns. 

There is a God who made and governs the world. — Of whom 
hast thou been afraid or feared ? — I deny not but that religion 
consists in these things. — This sentiment is well expressed by 
Plato, but much better by Solomon than him. 



208 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



SYNTACTICAL PARSING. 

Syntactical parsing includes etymological, and 
adds to it a statement of the relation in which words 
stand to each other, and the rules according to which 
they are combined in phrases and sentences. 

Before parsing a sentence syntactically, it should first be analyzed, 
as directed (658), and exemplified (659). 

MODEL OF SYNTACTICAL PARSING. 

"The minutest plant or animal, if attentively examined, affords a 
thousand wonders, and obliges us to admire and adore the Omnipotent 
hand by which it was created. " 

This sentence contains all the parts of speech except the interjection. 
It is parsed etymologically (581 and 582), and analyzed (659-7), which 
see. It may now be parsed syntactically, as follows : — 

The is the definite article ; it belongs to plant or animal (711), 

and shows these words to be limited. — Rule III., 2. " The 
article the is put," &c. (107). 

minutest . . is an adjective, compared here by er and est, superlative, 
and qualifies plant or animal. — Rule II., 1. "An adjective 
or participle," &c. (676). 

plant. . ... is a noun, neuter, in the nominative singular, the subject of 

affords and obliges. — Rule VI., u The subject of a finite 

verb," &c. (760). 
or is a disjunctive conjunction, connecting as alternates plant 

and animal (569). — Rule XIX. " Conjunctions connect," &c. 

(944). 

animal. ... is a noun, neuter, in the nominative singular — same as plant 
— and connected with it by or. 

if is a conjunction ; it connects its clause with the preceding as 

a condition. — Rule XIX. " Conjunctions connect," &c. 
(944). 

it (understood) is a third personal pronoun, neuter, in the 

nominative singular ; it stands for plant or animal. — Rule 
IV., 2. "When a pronoun refers," &c. (730); and is the 
subject of is examined. — Rule VI. " The subject of a finite 
verb," (760). 

is examined is a verb, transitive, regular,* in the present indicative, pas- 
sive, expressing an act done to its subject it, with which it 
agrees. — Rule VIII. "A verb agrees," &c. (776). 

* Conjugating is here omitted for brevity, it being unnecessary, because the verb is 
mentioned as regular (491, note). 



SYNTAX — PARSING. 209 

attentively . is an adverb, derived from attentive, and compared by more 
and most; it modifies is examined. — Rule XVIII. "Adverbs 
modify," &c. (922). 

affords .... is a verb, transitive, regular ; in the present indicative, act- 
ive, third person singular ; agrees with, and affirms of plant 
or animal. — Rule 3 under Rule YIII. u Two or more sub- 
stantives singular," &c. (785). 

a is the indefinite article, and belongs to thousand. It 

shows that the number is regarded as one aggregate (716). — 
Rule III., 1. "The article a or an," &c. (707 and 726). 

thousand . . is a numeral adjective, cardinal, qualifying tvonders. — Rule 
II., 1. "An adjective or participle," &c. (676). 

wonders ... is a noun, neuter, in the objective plural, the object of, and 
governed by, affords. — Rule X. "A transitive verb," &c. 
(SOI). 

and is a copulative conjunction ; it connects affords and obliges. 

— Rule XIX. "Conjunctions connect," &c. (944). 

obliges .... is the same as affords. See above. 

us is a personal pronoun, first person, masculine or feminine, 

in the objective plural, the object of, and governed by, 
obliges. — Rule X. "A transitive verb," &c. (801). It is at 
the same time the subject of to admire and to adore. — Rule 
3 under Rule XV. " The infinitive as the subject," &c. (872 
and 873). 

to admire. . is a verb, transitive, regular, in the present infinitive, active, 
governed by obliges. — Rule XY. " The infinitive mood is 
governed," &c. (865). 

and is a copulative conjunction ; it connects to admire and to 

adore. — Rule XIX. " Conjunctions connect," &c. (944). 

to adore ... is the same in parsing and construction as to admire. 

the is the definite article ; it belongs to hand, and shows it to 

be limited.— Rule III., 2. " The article the" &c. (707). 

Omnipotent is an adjective, not compared, because it does not admit of 
increase (223). It qualifies hand. — Rule II., 1. "An adjec- 
tive or participle," &c. (676). 

hand is a noun, neuter, in the objective singular, governed by to 

admire and to adore. — Rule X. "A transitive verb," &c. (801). 

by is a preposition ; it shows the relation between ivas created, 

the antecedent term, and which, the subsequent term (538, 
539), 

which is a relative pronoun, neuter, in the objective singular ; 

refers to, and agrees with, hand as its antecedent. — Rule V. 
"The relative agrees," &c. (742); and is governed by by. — 
Rule XL "A preposition governs," &c. (818). It connects 
its clause with hand, and describes it (645 and 610-5). 

it ........ is a pronoun, same as before ; is the subject of was created. 

—Rule VI. " The subject of a finite verb," &c. (760). 



210 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

ivas created is a verb, transitive, regular, in the past indicative, passive, 
third person singular ; affirms of, and agrees with it. — Rule 
VIII. "A verb agrees," &c. (776). 
In the same manner, parse the other sentences analyzed (659) ; and 
analyze and parse the exercises following them, page 143, and any cor- 
rect sentences from any good author. 



PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES 

ON THE RULES OF SYNTAX, ETC. 

2@p In the preceding "Exercises to be corrected," care has been taken 
to insert such examples only as can be corrected by the rule, or the ob- 
servations under which they are placed, or by those which precede them. 
In the following "Promiscuous Exercises," no particular arrangement is 
observed. Every sentence contains one error, many of them two, and 
some of them three or more. Many of the errors, too, are such as are 
often made, and, on account of our familiarity with them, are not so 
readily noticed. Others are such as nobody would make, and of course 
will at once be detected. These are inserted, not so much to be guarded 
against, as to illustrate and draw attention to the rule which they violate, 
and to show that others which are not so obvious, and which are some- 
times committed, involve the same error. For example, nobody would 
say, "Him writes." Some perhaps might say, " Here is the man whom 
everybody says is the writer of that letter ;" and yet the error in both is 
the same, and violates Rule VI. In all these examples for correction, the 
object aimed at is to put the pupil in possession of the idea intended to 
be expressed — and the exercise for him is to express that idea grammat- 
ically, in the best manner. There can be no danger of imitating an ex- 
pression which he is forewarned is wrong ; while it will exercise his judg- 
ment to detect the error, test his knowledge of grammar, and be a profit- 
able exercise in composition to put the sentence right. 

All these exercises may first be corrected orally — showing wherein each 
is wrong, and why — correcting the error — and giving a reason for the 
change made. They may then be written out in a corrected state. After 
that, each sentence may be analyzed as directed (658), and then parsed 
syntactically as directed (983). 

1.— 1. Too great a variety of studies perplex and weaken the 
judgment. — 2. I called to see you, but you was not at home. — 
3. To act with caution, but with steadiness and vigor, distinguish 
the manly character. — 4. The crown of virtue is peace and 
honor. — 5. In the human species, the influence of instinct and 
habit are generally assisted by the suggestions of reason. — 
6. The train of our ideas are often interrupted. — 7. They were 
both unfortunate, but neither of them were to blame. 

2. — 1. We arrived safely at our journey's end. — 2. That is a 
matter of no consequence between you and I. — -3. This should 
not happen between such friends as him and me. — 4. Them 



SYNTAX — PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES. 211 

that seek knowledge will find it. — 5. Such are the men whom, 
we might suppose, know better. — 6. Our welfare and security 
consists in unity. — 7. The love of virtue, and devotion to plea- 
sure, is opposed to each other. — 8. Every leaf, every twig, 
every drop of water, teem with life. — 9. No oppressor and no 
tyrant triumph there. — 10. All the world is spectators of your 
conduct. 

3. — 1. Nothing is more lovelier than virtue. — 2. His asso- 
ciates in wickedness will not fail to mark the alteration of his 
conduct. — 3. He is taller than me, but I am stronger than him. 
— 4. Neither riches or beauty furnish solid peace and content- 
ment. — 5. The abuse of mercies ripen us for judgments. — 6. 
John, William, and Henry's hats were stolen. — 7. A mans 
manners frequently influence his fortune. — 8. Much depends on 
this rule being observed. — 9. Such will ever be the effect of 
youth associating with vicious companions. — 10. Give to every 
one their due. — 11. It has been fully shown that neither of them 
are correct. — 12. Every bone, every muscle, every part of man, 
are known to Him which made him. 

4. — l.He writes tolerable well. — 2. Three months' notice are 
required to be given previous to a pupil's leaving of the school. 
— 3. That rose smells sweetly. — 4. He employed another friend 
of his father to assert his claim — [whose claim ?] — 5. A soul 
inspired with the love of truth, will keep all his powers attentive 
to the pursuit of it. — 6. It is the duty of every one to be care- 
ful of their reputation. — 7. It is remarkable his continual en- 
deavors to serve us. — 8. Whatever antiquities he could procure, 
he purchased them at any price. — 9. I am not so well as when 
you w r as here. — 10. It is three days yesterday, since you have 
promised that money. — 11. This mode of expression has been 
formerly in use — 12. He promised long ago, that he had at- 
tended to that matter. — 13. He was expected to have arrived 
earlier. 

5. — 1. Twice three are six. — 2. Six times three are eight- 
een. — 3. As two are to four, so are six to twelve. — 4. Five are 
the half of ten. — 5. The half of ten are five. — 6. Nine are not 
an even number. — 7. One man and one boy is sufficient. — 8. 
Two boys is equal to one man. — 9. Two boys are less than 
three — three is better than nothing. — 10. Two is better than 
one. — 11. Two are an even number — three are not. — 12. Two 
are twice one. — 13. Two and two makes four. — 14. Three- 
fourths are more than one half. — 15. Five men is too many for 



212 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

such a piece of work — three is too few. — 16. Three shot was 
fired without effect. — 17. The fleet consisted of six sails. — 18. 
A drove of forty heads of cattle passed along. 

6. — 1. Molasses are thicker than water. — 2. The measles are 
spreading through the country. — 3. Wheat is being sold for a 
dollar a bushel, and oats is in demand. — 4. The news by the 
last arrival is better than were expected. — 5. We hoped to have 
heard from you before this. — 6. Do you not think he writes 
good ? — 7. The wind blows coldly from the north, and the snow 
lies deeply on the ground. — 8. James is as tall if not taller than 
I am. — 9. He never has and he never will do so well. — 10. He 
whoever said so was mistaken. — 11. There are a heroic inno- 
cence as well as a heroic courage. — 12. He puts down the 
mighty and exalteth the humble. — 13. Piety toward God, as 
well as sobriety and virtue, are necessary to happiness. 

7. — 1. Take care who you admit into your friendship. — 2. I 
always understood it to be he, whom they said wrote that book. 
— 3. If I was him, I would take more care for the future. — 4. 
There is two or three of us who have been at Europe last year. 
— 5. We were in Havre when the revolution broke out at 
France. — 6. I have been to Boston for a few days, and spent 
the time very pleasant. — 7. That is the man and the horse 
which we met before. — 8. George was the most enterprising 
young man whom I ever knew. — 9. All who were present were 
pleased with the entertainment. 

8. — 1. This excellent person was fully resigned either to have 
lived or to have died. — 2. Between he and I there is some dis- 
parity of years, but none between he and she. — 3. To be mod- 
erate in our views, and proceeding temperately in the pursuit of 
them, is the best way to insure success. — 4. Enjoying health, 
and to live in peace, are great blessings. — 5. Which dictionary 
do you prefer, Webster or Walker? — 6. Though this event be 
strange, it certainly did happen. — 7. If he does but consider the 
subject, he will no doubt change his opinion. — 8. Ignorance is 
the mother of fear, as well as admiration. — 9. Let him be whom 
he may, I can not wait for him. — 10. We have no need for his 
assistance. — 11. Among every class of people, self-interest pre- 
vails. 

9. — 1. Many have profited from the misfortunes of others. — 
2. Many ridiculous customs have been brought in use during 
the hundred last years. — 3. Is there no person who you can 
send on that business ? — 4. Little attention to business is neces- 



SYNTAX PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES. 213 

sary, if you would succeed.— 5. A truth is virtue to which we 
should pay little regard. — 6. Without firmness, nothing that is 
great can be undertaken; that is hazardous, accomplished. — 7. 
The people of the United States enjoys a free constitution and 
l aws . — 8. That is a property most men have, or at least may 
attain. — 9. The pyramids of Egypt stood more than three thous- 
and years. — 10. It is thought they have been built by the 
Egyptian kings. — 11. When the nation complain, the rulers 
should listen to their voice. — 12. Whom say the people that I 



am 



? 



10. — 1. They that honor me, I will honor. — 2. He only got 
the money for a few days. — 3. He was mistaken evidently in 
his calculations. — 4. No man is fit for free conversation, for the 
inquiry after truth, if he be exceedingly reserved ; if he be 
haughty and proud of his knowledge ; if he be positive and 
dogmatical in his opinions ; if he be one who always affects to 
outshine all the company ; if he be fretful and peevish ; if he 
affect wit, and is full of puns, or quirks, or quibbles. — 5. A good 
end does not warrant the using bad means. — 6. A good end does 
not warrant using of bad means.— 7. Humility neither seeks 
the last place, or the last word. — 8. Either wealth or power may 
ruin their possessor. — 9. Avoid lightness and frivolity ; it is 
allied to folly. — 10. Do you know who you are talking to? — 11. 
Art thou the man who hast dared to insult me? — 12. Oh that 
the winter was gone ! 

11. — 1. We are often disappointed of things which, before 
possession, promised much enjoyment. — 2. We can fully confide 
on none but the truly good. — 3. You may rely in that. — 4. The 
Saxons reduced the greater part of Britain to their power. — 5. 
He was accused with acting unfairly, at least in a manner illy 
adapted for conciliating regard. — 6. There is more business done 
in New York than in any city of the United States. — 7. The 
same laws and the same constitution which belongs to one citizen 
of the United States belongs to all. — 8. If there was better 
management, there would be greater security. — 9. The ship 
Panama is early expected from Canton in the spring. — 10. Ev- 
ery year, every day, and every hour, bring their changes. — 11. 
Whom say ye that I am? 

12. — 1. Many a youth have ruined their prospects for life by 
one imprudent step. — 2. No power was ever yet intrusted to 
man without a liability to abuse. — 3. A conceited fool is more 
abominable than all fools. — 4. My gravity never did no one any 



214 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

harm. — 5. A constant display of the graces are fatiguing to a 
sober mind. — 6. These coins of compliments and flattery circu- 
late everywhere in society : the true is of gold, the base is of 
brass. — 7. Expectation and reality makes up the sum total of 
life. — 8. Music, the love of it, and the practice of it, seems to 
pervade all creation. — 9. All soils are not adapted for cultiva- 
tion. — 10. The vain abhors the vain. — 11. The author dreads 
the critic, the miser dreads the thief, the criminal dreads the 
judge, the horse dreads the whip, the lamb dreads the wolf— all 
after their kind.' — 12. The intellectual and moral censor both 
have the same ends in view. 

* 13. — 1. I was engaged formerly in that business, but I never 
shall be again concerned in it. — 2. We do those things frequently 
which we repent of afterward. — 3. Not to exasperate him, I 
only spoke a few words. — 4. Shall you attain success without 
that preparation, and escape dangers without that precaution 
which is required of others? — 5. That picture of your mother's 
is a very exact resemblance of her. — 6. The winter has not 
been as severe as we expected it to have been. — 7. In ref- 
erence to that transaction, he deserved punishment as^nuch or 
more than his companions. — 8. In such circumstances, no man, 
no woman, no child are safe. — 9. Every one of those pleasures 
that are pursued to excess, convert themselves into poison. — 
10. Thou, Lord, who hath permitted affliction to come upon us, 
shall deliver us from it in due time. — 11. The sea appeared to 
be more than usually agitated. — 12. By these attainments are 
the master honored and the scholar encouraged. — 13. The tem- 
ple consisted of one great and several smaller edifices. 14. 

Whether he will be learned or no, depends on his application. 



A LIST OF IMPROPER EXPRESSIONS. 

SELECTED CHIEFLY FROM PICKERINGS VOCABULARY. 

Improper, Proper. 

The alone God. The alone motive. The one God. The only motive. 

I anH ; you anH ; he an% &c. I am not ; you are not ; he is not, &c. 

Any manner of means. Any means. 

He was walking back and forth. backward and forward. 

His argument was based on this fact. His argument was founded on this 

fact. 

The money was ordered paid. The money was ordered to be paid. 

I calcidate to leave town soon I intend to leave town soon. 

A chunk of bread. A piece of bread. 



SYNTAX — PUNCTU ATI N. 



215 



A clever house. 
He conducts well. 

He is considerable of a scholar. 
His farm was convenient to mine. 

He is a decent scholar, writer. 

Her situation was distressing to a 

degree. 
A totaf destitution of capacity. 
The United States, or either of them. 
Equally as well ; as good, &c. 

Mr. A B , Esq. 

I expect he must have died long ago. 
These things are in a bad fix. 
Will you fix these things for me ? 

What do folks think of it? 
Talents of the highest grade. 
Do you love play ? I guess I do. 
We may hope the assistance of God. 

A horse colt ; a mare colt. 

It would illy accord. 

When did you come in town ? 

A lengthy sermon, &c. 

Why don't you strike like I do ? 



A good house. 

He conducts himself well, respecta- 
bly. 

He is a pretty good scholar. 

His farm was contiguous to mine, 
close. 

He is a pretty good scholar, writer. 

was extremely distressing. 

A total want of capacity. 

The United States, or any of them. 

Equally well, or just as well, &c. 

A 5— B , Esq. 

I think he must have died, &c. 

in a bad state or condition. 

Will you put these things in order 

for me ? 
What do people think of it ? 
Talents of the highest order. 

there is no doubt of that. 

We mav hope for the assistance of 

God. 
A colt ; a filly. 
It would ill accord. 
When did you come into town 
A long sermon, &c. 
■ as I do, or like as I do ? 



PUNCTUATION. 

984. Punctuation treats of the points and marks now 
used in writing. 

985. The use of these points is to mark the divisions of a sentence, 
in order to show the meaning more clearly, and to serve as a guide 
in the pauses and inflections required in reading. 

986. The principal marks used for this purpose are the following : 
the comma (,), the semicolon (;), the colon (:), the period (. ), the 
interrogation point (?), the exclamation point (!), the dash ( — ), 
the parenthesis ( ), the brackets [ ]. 

98T. With respect to the length of the pauses indicated by these 
marks, no very definite rule can be given — the same point in certain 
kinds of composition, and in certain positions, requiring sometimes 
a longer and sometimes a shorter pause. 

988, As a general rule, the comma marks the shortest pause ; the 
semicolon, a pause double that of the comma ; the colon, a pause 
double that of the semicolon ; and the period, a pause still longer 
than that of the colon. 



216 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

COMMA. 

989. The comma is generally used in those parts of a sentence in 
which a short pause is required, and to mark a connection next in 
closeness to that which is unbroken. 

SPECIAL RULES. 

990. Rule 1. — In a short, simple sentence, the comma is not used; as, 
" Hope is necessary in every condition of life." * 

991. Rule 2. — When the logical subject of a verb is rendered long by 
the addition of several adjuncts, or other qualifying words, to the gram- 
matical subject, a comma is usually inserted before the verb ; as, U A 
steady and undivided attention to one subject, is a sure mark of a supe- 
rior mind." 

992. Rule 3. — In compound sentences, the clauses or members are 
usually separated by commas ; as, " Crafty men contemn studies, simple 
men admire them, and wise men use them." But when the clauses are 
short, or closely connected, the comma is not used ; as, " Revelation tells 
us how we may attain happiness." 

993. Rule 4. — Two words of the same class, connected by a conjunc- 
tion expressed, do not admit a comma between them ; as, " The earth and 
the moon are planets." — u He is a wise and prudent man." — " He catches 
and arrests the hours." — " He acts prudently and vigorously" But when 
the conjunction is not expressed, a comma is inserted after each ; as, 
"Reason, virtue, answer one great aim." But, of two adjectives, the last 
should not be separated by a comma from its noun ; as, "He is & plain, hon- 
est man : " Nor can two adjectives be separated from each other by a com- 
ma when used together as a compound adjective ; as, "A bright-red color ." 

994. Rule 5. — More than two words of the same class connected by 
conjunctions expressed or understood, have a comma after each; as, 
" Poetry, music, and painting, are fine arts." But when the words con- 
nected are adjectives, the last should not be separated from its noun by 
a comma after it ; as, " David was a wise, brave, and prudent king." 

995. Rule 6. — Words used in pairs take a comma after each pair ; as, 
"Anarchy and confusion, poverty and distress, desolation and ruin, are 
the consequences of civil war." 

996. Rule 7. — Nouns in apposition are separated by a comma, when 
the latter noun has several words or adjuncts connected with it ; as, 
" Paul, the apostle of the Gentiles." But a single noun in apposition with 
another is not separated by a comma ; as, " Paul the apostle." 

99T. Rule 8. — The nominative independent, and the nominative abso- 
lute (768), with the words dependent on them, are separated by commas 
from the rest of the sentence; as, "My son, hear the instruction of thy 
father." — " I am, sir, your obedient servant." — " The time of youth being 
precious, we should devote it to improvement." — " To confess the truth, I 
was in fault." 

998. Rule 9.— Comparative and antithetical clauses are separated by a 
comma ; thus, "As the hart panteth after the water-brooks, so doth my 
soul pant after thee." — "Though deep, yet clear; though gentle, yet not 



PUNCTUATION. 217 

dull." But when the comparison is short, and the connection intimate, 
the comma is not used; as, "Wisdom is better than rubies." 

999. Rule 10. — The adverbs nay, so, hence, again, first, secondly, &c, 
when considered important, and particularly at the beginning of a sen- 
tence, should be separated from the context by a comma ; as, " Nay, but 
we will serve the Lord." So also, as and thus, introducing an example or 
quotation ; as, &c. 

1000. Rule 11. — A relative with its clause, explanatory of its antece- 
dent, is usually separated from the rest of a sentence ; as, " He who dis- 
regards the good opinion of the world, must be utterly abandoned," or, 
u He must be utterly abandoned, who disregards," &c. But when the 
relative, with its clause, is restrictive (267-2), and the connection so close 
that it can not be separated, the comma is not used; as, u Self-denial is 
the sacrifice which virtue must make." 

1001. Rule 12. — That, used as a conjunction, and preceded by another 
clause, usually has a comma before it ; as, " Be virtuous, that you may 
be happy." But when the clause introduced by that, is the subject or the 
object of the verb in the preceding clause, the comma is not inserted; 
as, " It is welt that he should know it." — " I said that ye are gods." 

1002. Rule 13. — When a verb is understood, a comma must be in- 
serted; as, "Reading makes a full man ; conversation, a ready man; and 
writing, an exact man." 

1003. Rule 14. — Words repeated o.re separated by a comma ; as, u Holy, 
holy, holy, is the Lord God Almighty." — "No, no, no, it can not be." 

1001. Rule 15. — Inverted sentences, by throwing two or more words 
out of their regular connection, often require a comma ; as, " To God, all 
things are possible." Not inverted, it would be, "All things are possible 
to God." — " His delight was, to assist the distressed." In the natural 
order, " To assist the distressed was his delight." 

1005. Rule 16.— A short expression, in the manner of a quotation, is 
separated by commas ; as, " Plutarch calls lying, the vice of slaves." Also 
the verbs say, reply, and the like, with their dependent words introducing 
a quotation or remark, are usually separated by commas ; as, " The book 
of nature, said he, is open before thee." — " I say unto all, watch." 

1006. Rule 17. — Adjectives, participles, adverbs, infinitives, &c, when 
separated from' the word on which they depend, or, when accompanied 
by several adjuncts, commonly require commas to be inserted ; as, " His 
talents, formed for great enterprises, could not fail of rendering him con- 
spicuous." — " To conclude, I can only say this." — " We must not, how- 
ever, neglect our duty." 

SEMICOLON. 

1007. The semicolon is used to separate the parts of a sentence 
which are less closely connected than those which are separated by 
a comma, and more closely than those which are separated by the 
colon. 

GENERAL RULE. 

1008. The parts of a sentence separated by a semicolon, should 

10 



218 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

contain in themselves a complete and independent proposition, but 
still having a connection with the other parts. 

SPECIAL RULES. 

1009. Rule 1. — When the first division of a sentence contains a com- 
plete proposition, but is followed by a clause added as an inference or 
reason, or to give some explanation, the part thus added must be sepa- 
ted by a semicolon ; as, " Perform your duty faithfully ; for this will pro- 
cure you the blessing of Heaven." — " The orator makes the truth plain 
to his hearers ; he awakens them ; he excites them to action ; he shows 
them their impending danger." — " Be at peace with many ; nevertheless, 
have but few counsellors." 

1010. Rule 2. — When several short sentences, complete in themselves, 
but having a slight connection in idea, follow in succession, they should 
be separated by a semicolon ; as, " The epic poem recites the exploits of 
a hero ; tragedy represents a disastrous event ; comedy ridicules the vices 
and follies of mankind ; pastoral poetry describes rural life ; and elegy 
displays the tender emotions of the heart." 

1011. Rule 3. — When a sentence consists of several members, and 
these members are complex, and subdivided by commas, the larger divi- 
sions of the sentence are sometimes separated by a semicolon ; as, "As 
the desire of approbation, when it works according to reason, improves 
the amiable part of our species in everything that is laudable ; so nothing 
is more destructive to them, when it is governed by vanity and folly." 

1012. Rule 4. — When a general term has several others, as particulars, 
in apposition under it, the general term is separated from the particulars 
by a semicolon, and the particulars, from each other by commas ; as, 
"Adjective pronouns are divided into four classes ; possessive, demon- 
strative, distributive, and indefinite." But if the word namely be intro- 
duced, the separation is made by a comma only. 

COLON. 

1013. The colon is used to divide a sentence into two or more 
parts, less connected than those which are separated by a semicolon, 
but not so independent as to require a period. 

SPECIAL RULES. 

1014. Rule 1. — A colon is used when a sentence is complete in itself, 
in both sense and construction, but is followed by some additional remark 
or illustration, depending upon it in sense, though not in Syntax ; as, "A 
brute arrives at a point of perfection that he can never pass : in a few 
years he has all the endowments of which he is capable." — " Study to ac- 
quire a habit of thinking : nothing is more important." 

1015. Rule 2. — When several short sentences follow in succession, each 
containing a complete sense in itself, but all having a common depend- 
ence on some subsequent clause ; these sentences are separated from the 
subsequent clause by a colon, and from each other by a semicolon ; as, 
" That Nature is unlimited in her operations ; that she has inexhaustible 



PUNCTUATION. 219 

resources in reserve ; that knowledge will always be progressive ; and 
that all future generations will continue to make discoveries : these are 
among the assertions of philosophers." 

1016. Rule 3. — Either a colon or semicolon may be used when an ex- 
ample, a quotation, or a speech, is introduced; as, "Always remember 
this ancient maxim ; l Know thyself. 1 " — " The Scriptures give us an ami- 
able representation of the Deity in these words : ' God is love. 1 " 

1017. Rule 4. — The insertion or omission of a conjunction before the 
concluding member of a sentence, frequently determines the use of the 
colon or semicolon. When the conjunction is not expressed before the 
concluding member, which would otherwise be separated by a semicolon, 
the colon is used; but when the conjunction is expressed, the semicolon ; 
as, "Apply yourself to learning: it will redound to your honor." — "Apply 
yourself to learning ; for it will redound to your honor." 

PERIOD. 

101 8. Sentences which are complete in sense, and not connected 
in either meaning or grammatical construction, are separated by a 
period; thus, "Fear God. Honor the king. Have chanty toward 
all men." 

1019. But when short sentences are connected in meaning, but not in 
construction, they are separated by a semicolon (1010). 

10*20. Long sentences, if complete, even though grammatically con- 
nected by conjunctions, often insert a period (563); thus, "He who lifts 
up himself to the notice and observation of the world, is, of all men, the 
least likely to avoid censure. For he draws upon himself a thousand 
eyes, that will narrowly inspect him in every part." 

1021. A period must be used at the end of all books, chapters, sections, 
&c; also after all abbreviations ; as, A. D., M. A., Art. II., Obs. 3., J. 
Smith, &c. 

INTERROGATION. 

1022. A question is regarded as a complete sentence, and the interro- 
gation point as equal to the period. 

1023. The note of interrogation is always put at the end of a direct ques- 
tion; as, " What is truth?" But the indirect question does not require 
the interrogation point ; as, " Pilate inquired what is truth." 

Note. — Printers are generally the best punctuators, as they follow a 
uniform system. It is, therefore, for the most part, best, in preparing 
matter for the press, to leave this matter to them, except where the mean- 
ing intended may not be clearly perceived without the punctuation. 

OTHER CHARACTERS USED IN WRITING. 

1024. The Bash ( — ) is used where the sentence breaks off abruptly; 
also, to denote a significant pause — an unexpected turn in the sentiment 
— or that the first clause is common to all the rest, as in this definition. 

1025. The note of Exclamation (!) is used after expressions of sudden 



220 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

emotion of any kind ; also, in invocations or addresses ; as, " Eternity ! 
thou pleasing, dreadful thought." Oh has the mark immediately after it, 
or after the next word ; as, u Oh! that he would come." But when O 
is used, the note is placed after some intervening words; as, u O my 
friends!" 

1026. Parenthesis ( ) includes a clause inserted in the body of a sen- 
tence, in order to some useful or necessary information or remark, but 
which may be omitted without injuring the construction of the sentence; 
as, " Know ye not, brethren (for I speak to them that know the law), how 
that the law hath dominion over a man as long as he liveth." In reading, 
the parenthetic part is distinguished by a lower or altered tone of voice. 
When the clause is short, and accords with the general tenor of the sen- 
tence, commas are now generally used instead of parentheses ; as, 

" Thou sluggish power, if poiver thou be, 
All destitute of energy." 
The use of parentheses should be avoided as much as possible. 

1027. Brackets [] are properly used to enclose a word or phrase inter- 
polated for ihe purpose of explanation, correction, or supplying a defi- 
ciency in a sentence quoted or regarded as such, and which did not belong 
to the original composition ; thus, it is said, u The wisest men [and, it 
might be added, the best too] are not exempt from human frailty." 

1028. The Apostrophe ( ' ) is used when a letter or letters are omitted ; 
as, e'er for ever, tho 1 for though ; or to mark the possessive case. 

1029. Quotation marks ( u ") are put at the beginning and end of a 
passage quoted from an author in his own words, or to mark a passage 
regarded as a quotation. 

1030. The Hyphen (-) is used to connect compound words which are 
not permanent compounds, as, lap-dog : also at the end of a line, to show 
that the rest of the word not completed is at the beginning of the next 
line. 

1031. Section ( § ) is used to divide a discourse or chapter into portions. 

1032. Paragraph ( Tf ) was formerly used to denote the beginning of a 
new paragraph. 

1033. The Brace (~^) is used to connect words which have one com- 
mon term, or three lines in poetry having the same rhyme, called a triplet. 

1034. Ellipsis ( ) is used when some letters are omitted ; as, if— # 

for King. Several asterisks are sometimes used for the same purpose ; 
as, R**g. 

1035. The Caret (^) is used to show that some word is either omitted 
or interlined. 

1036. The Index (^W) is used to point out anything remarkable. 

1037. The vowel marks are : the Diceresis ( " ), on the last of two con- 
current vowels, showing that they are not to be pronounced as a diph- 
thong; the Acute accent ('); the Grave ( N ); the Long sound (-); the 
Short sound ( v ). 

1038. The marks of reference are: The Asterisk (*); the Obelisk or 
Dagger ( f ) ; the Double Dagger ( + ) ; the Parallels ( j| ). Sometimes, - 
also, the § and *f[. Also small letters or figures which refer to notes at the 
foot of the page. 



FIGURES. 221 

FIGURES. 

1039, A Figure, in grammar, is some deviation from 
the ordinary form, or construction, or application of 
words in a sentence, for the purpose of greater preci- 
sion, variety, or elegance of expression. 

1040. There are three kinds of Figures ; viz., of Etymology, of 
Syntax, and of Rhetoric. The first and the second refer to the form 
of words, or to their construction] and the last, to their application. 

FIGURES OF ETYMOLOGY. 

1041. A Figure of Etymology is a departure from the usual or 
simple form of words, merely. 

1042. Of these-the most important are eight, viz.: A-phmr-e-sis, 
Pros-the-sis, Syn-co-pe, A-poc-o-pe, Par-a-go-ge, Di-wr-e-sis, Syn-cer- 
e-sis, and Tmesis. 

1. Aphceresis is the elision of a syllable from the beginning of a word; 
as, Against, ^gan, ''hove, 'neath, for against, began, above, beneath. 

2. Prosthesis is the prefixing of a syllable to a word ; as, adown, ago- 
ing, &c., for down, going, &c. 

3. Syncope is the elision of a letter or syllable, usually a short one, from 
the middle of a word; as, medicine, spirit, e'en, for medicine, spirit, even. 

4. Apocope is the elision of a letter or syllable from the end of a word ; 
as, tho\ for though, thJ for the. 

5. Paragoge is the annexing of a syllable to the end of a word ; as, 
deary, for dear. 

6 Biceresis is the division of two concurrent vowels into different syl- 
lables, usually marked thus ( " ) on the second vowel ; as, cooperate, aerial. 

7. Synceresis is the joining of two syllables into one, in either ortho- 
graphy or pronunciation ; as, dost, seest, for doest, seest, or, loved, learned, 
pronounced in one syllable instead of two, lov-ed, learn-ed. 

8. Tmesis is separating the parts of a compound word by an interven- 
ing term; as, "What time soever" — " On which side soever" — "To us 
ward." 

FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 

1043. A figure of Syntax is a deviation from the usual construc- 
tion of words in a sentence, used for the sake of greater beauty or 
force. ,. 

1044. Of these, the most important are Ellipsis, Pleonasm, Syl- 
lepsis, Enallage, Hyperbaton. 

1. Ellipsis is the omission of a word or words necessary to the full 



222 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

construction of a sentence, but not necessary to convey the idea intended 
(911). Such words are said to be understood; as, "The men, women, 
and children," for "The men, the women, and the children." 

2. Pleonasm is the using of more words than are necessary to the full 
construction of a sentence, to give greater force or emphasis to the ex- 
pression; as, "The boy, oh! where was he" 

3. Syllepsis is an inferior species of personification, by which we con- 
ceive the sense of words otherwise than the words import, and construe 
them according to the sense conceived. Thus, of the sun, we say, "He 
shines" — of a ship, "She sails" (130). 

4. Enallage is the use of one part of speech for another, or of one 
modification of a word for another ; as, an adjective for an adverb, thus : 
"They fall successive, and successive rise," for successively ; the use of we 
and you in the plural, to denote an individual, &c. (245): the use of one 
case for another; as, "than whom" for than who (966). 

5. Hyperbaton is the transposition of words and clauses in a sentence, 
to give variety, force, and vivacity, to the composition; as, "Now come 
we to the last." — "A man he zoas to all the country dear." — "He wanders 
earth around" 

FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 

1045. A Figure of Rhetoric is a deviation from the ordinary appli- 
cation of words in speech, to give animation, strength, and beauty, 
to the composition. These figures are sometimes called tropes. 

1046. Of these, the most important are the following, viz.: — 
Personification, Hyperbole, Climax, 
Simile, Irony, Exclamation, 
Metaphor, Metonymy, Interrogation, 
Allegory, Synecdoche, Paralepsis, 
Vision, Antithesis, Apostrophe. 

1. Personification, or prosopopceia, is that figure of speech by which 
we attribute life and action to inanimate objects; as, "2 he sea saioit and 
fled." 

2. A simile expresses the resemblance that one object bears to anoth- 
er ; as, "He shall be like a tree planted by the rivers of water" 

3. A metaphor is a simile without the sign (like, or as, &c.) of compar- 
ison; as, "He shall be a tree planted by," &c. 

4. An allegory is a continuation of several metaphors, so connected in 
sense as to form a kind of parable or fable. Thus, the people of Israel 
are represented under the image of a vine : "Thou hast brought a vine 
out of Egypt," &c. Ps. lxxx. 8-17. Of this style are ^Esop's Fables, Bun- 
yan's "Pilgrim's Progress," &c. 

5. Vision, or imagery, is a figure by which the speaker represents past 
events, or the objects of his imagination, as actually present to his senses ; 
as, " Caesar leaves Gaul, crosses the Rubicon, and enters Italy." — " The 
combat thickens : on, ye brave ! " 



POETIC LICENSES. 223 

6. An hyperbole is a figure that represents things as greater or less, 
better or worse, than they really are. Thus, David says of Saul and 
Jonathan, "They were swifter than eagles, they were stronger than lions" 

7. Irony is a figure by which we mean quite the contrary of what we 
say; as, when Elijah said to the worshipers of Baal, "Cry aloud, for he 
is a god" &c. 

8. A metonymy is a figure by which we put the cause for the effect, or 
the effect for the cause ; as, when we say, " He reads Milton," we mean 
Milton's works. "Gray hairs should be respected " — that is, old age. 

9. Synecdoche is the putting of a part for the whole, or the whole for a 
part, a' definite number for an indefinite, &c; as, the waves for the sea, 
the head for the person, and ten thousand for any great number. This 
figure is nearly allied to metonymy. 

10. Antithesis, or contrast, is a figure by which different or contrary 
objects are contrasted, to make them show one another to advantage. 
Thus, Solomon contrasts the timidity of the wicked with the courage of 
the righteous, when he says, "The wicked flee ivJien no man pursiteth, but 
the righteous are bold as a lion." 

11. Climax, or amplification, is the heightening of all the circumstan- 
ces of an object or action which we wish to place in a strong light ; as, 
"Who shall separate us from the love of Christ? Shall tribtdation, or 
distress, or persecution, or famine, or nakedness, or peril, or sword? Nay," 
&c. See also Rom. viii. 38, 39. 

12. Exclamation is a figure that is used to express some strong emotion 
of the mind; as, "Oh! tlie depth of the riches both of the idsdom and the 
knowledge of God." 

13. Interrogation is a figure by which we express the emotion of our 
mind, and enliven our discourse, by proposing questions ; thus, "Hath the 
Lord said it? and shall he not do it ? Hath he spoken it? and shall he 
not make it good? " 

14. Paralepsis, or omission, is a figure by which the speaker pretends 
to conceal what he is really declaring and strongly enforcing ; as, " Ho- 
ratius was once a very promising young gentleman, but in process of time 
he became so addicted to gaming, not to mention his drunkenness and de- 
bauchery, that he soon exhausted his estate, and ruined his constitution. 7 ' 

15. Apostrophe is a turning off from the subject to address some other 
person or thing ; as, "Death is sivallowed up in victory. Heath, 
where is thy sting ? " 

1047. Besides the deviations from the usual form and construction of 
words, noted under the figures of Etymology and Syntax, there are still 
others, which can not be classed under proper heads, and which, from 
being used mostly in poetic composition, are commonly called — 

POETIC LICENSES. 

1018. These are such as the following : — 

1 In poetry, words, idioms, and phrases, are often used, which 
would be inadmissible in prose ; as — 



224 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

u A man he was to all the country dear, 
And passing rich with forty pounds a year." 

"By fountain clear, or spangled starlight sheen." 

"Shall I receive by gift, what of my own, 
"When and where likes me best, I can command ?" 

" Thy voice we hear, and thy behests obey." 

" The whiles, the vaulted shrine around, 

Seraphic wires were heard to sound." 
" On the first friendly bank he throws him down." 
"I'll seek the solitude he sought, 

And stretch me where he lay." 
" Not Hector's self should want an equal foe." 

2. More violent and peculiar ellipses are allowable in poetry than 

in prose ; as — 

" Suffice, to-night, these orders to obey." 
" Time is our tedious song should here have ending." 
"For is there aught in sleep can charm the wise ?" 
" 'T is Fancy, in her fiery car, 

Transports me to the thickest war." 
"Who never fasts, no banquet e'er enjoys." 
"Bliss is the same in subject as in king, 
In who obtain defence, or who defend." 

3. In poetry, adjectives are often elegantly connected with nouns 
which they do not strictly qualify ; as — 

"The ploughman homeward plods his weary way." 

" The tenants of the warbling shade." 

" And drowsy tinklings lull the distant folds." 

4. The rules of grammar are often violated by the poets. A noun 
and its pronoun are often used in reference to the same verb ; as — 

"It ceased, the melancholy sound." 

" My banks they are furnished with bees." 

5. An adverb is often admitted between the verb and to, the sign 
of the infinitive ; as — 

" To sit on rocks, to muse o'er flood and fell ; 
To slowly trace the forest's shady scenes." 

6. A common poetic license consists in employing or and nor in- 
stead of either and neither ; as — 

"And first 

Or on the listed plain, or stormy sea." 
" Nor grief nor fear shall break my rest." 

7. Intransitive verbs are often made transitive, and adjectives used 
like abstract nouns ; as — 

" The lightnings flash a larger curve." 



POETIC LICENSES. 225 

14 Still in harmonious intercourse, they lived 
The rural day, and talked the flowing heart." 

" Meanwhile whate'er of beautiful or new, 
By chance or search, was offered to his view, 
He scanned with curious eye." 

8. Greek, Latin, and other foreign idioms, are allowable in poetry, 
though inadmissible in prose ; as — 

"He knew to sing, and build the lofty rhyme." 
" Give me to seize rich Nestor's shield of gold." 
11 There are, who, deaf to mad ambition's call, 

Would shrink to hear the obstreperous trump of fame." 
" Yet to their general's voice they all obeyed." 

" Never since created man 

Met such embodied force." 

1019. Such are a few of the licenses allowed to poets, but denied to 
prose writers ; and, among other purposes which they obviously serve, 
they enhance the pleasure of reading poetic composition, by increasing 
the boundary of separation set up, especially in our language, between it 
and common prose. Were such licenses not permitted in poetry, the dif- 
ficulty attendant upon this species of composition would probably be so 
great, that hardly any person would attempt the arduous task of writing 
verse. 

EXERCISES. 

Point out, name, and define, the figures of Etymology in the following 
phrases and sentences : — 

His courage 'gan fail. — Bend 'gainst the steepy hill thy 
breast. — 'T was mine, 't is his. — Vain tamp'ring has but fostered 
his disease. — Enchained he lay, a monster. — What way soe'er 
he turned, it met him. — Th' aerial pencil forms the scene anew. 

Point out, name, and define, the figures of Syntax in the following sen- 
tences : — 

The law I gave to nature him forbids. — So little mercy shows 
who needs so much. — My head is filled with dew, and my locks 
with the drops of the night. — Consider the lilies of the field, 
how they grow. — He that glorieth, let him glory in the Lord. 

Point out, name, and define, the figures of Rhetoric in the following 
sentences : — 

As thy day is, so shall thy strength be. — Without discipline, 
the favorite, like a neglected forester, runs wild. — Thy name is 
as ointment poured forth. — The Lord God is a sun and shield. 
— I saw their chief, tall as a rock of ice, his spear the blasted 
fir. — At which the universal host sent up a shout that tore hell's 
concave. 

10* 



PART IV. 



PROSODY. 

1050. Pkosody treats of Elocution and Versification. 

ELOCUTION. 

1051. Elocution is correct pronunciation, or the prop- 
er management of the voice in reading or speaking. 

1052. In order to read and speak with grace and effect, attention 
must be paid to the proper pitch of the voice, the accent and quan- 
tity of the syllables, and to emphasis, pauses, and tones. 

1053. — 1. In the pitch and management of the voice, it should be 
neither too high nor too low ; it should be distinct and clear ; the utter- 
ance neither too quick nor too slow, and neither too varied nor too monot- 
onous. 

1054.— 2. Accent is the laying of a particular stress of voice on a cer- 
tain syllable in a word, as the syllable vir- in vir'tue, vir'tuous. 

1055.— 3. The quantity of a syllable is the relative time which is re- 
quired to pronounce it. A long syllable, in quantity, is equal to two short 
ones. Thus, pine, tube, note, require to be sounded as long again as pin 
tub, not. In English versification, an accented syllable is long, an unac- 
cented one is short. 

1056. — i. Emphasis means that greater stress of the voice which we 
lay on some particular word or words, in order to mark their superior im- 
portance in the sentence, and thereby the better to convey the idea in- 
tended by the writer or speaker. 

1057. — 5. Pauses or rests, are cessations of the voice, in order to ena- 
ble the reader or speaker to take breath ; and to give the hearer a dis- 
tinct perception of the meaning, not only of each sentence, but of the 
whole discourse (985). For poetic pauses, see (1116). 

1058.— 6. Tones consist in the modulation of the voice, and the notes, 
or variations of sound, which we employ in speaking, to express the dif- 
ferent sentiments, emotions, or feelings, intended. 

*** A full consideration of these topics, in a work of this kind, would 
be as impracticable as it would be out of place, since it would require a 
volume for that purpose. They are fully treated of and exemplified in 
works on elocution— a subject which is, or should be, taken up as a sepa- 
rate branch of study. 



PROSODY — VERSIFICATION. 227 

VERSIFICATION. 
1059# Versification is the art of arranging words 
into poetical lines, or verses. 

1060. A Verse, or Poetical Line, consists of a certain number of 
accented and unaccented syllables, arranged according to fixed rules. 

1061. A Couplet, or Distich, consists of two lines or verses taken 
together, whether rhyming with each other or not. A Triple t con- 
sists of three lines rhyming together. 

1062. A Stanza is a combination of several verses or lines, vary- 
ing in number according to the poet's fancy, and constituting a reg- 
ular division of a poem or song. This is often incorrectly called a 
verse. 

1063. Rhyme is the similarity of sound in the last syllables of two 
or more lines arranged in a certain order. Poetry, the verses of 
which have this similarity, is sometimes called Rhyme. 

1064. Blank Verse is the name given to that species of poetry 
which is without rhyme. 

FEET. 

1065. Feet are the smaller portions into which a line is divided — 
each of which consists of two or more syllables, combined according 
to accent. 

1066. In English versification, an accented syllable is accounted long ; 
an unaccented syllable, short. In the following examples, a straight line 
(-) over a syllable shows that it is accented, and a curved line, or breve 
(~), that it is unaccented. 

1067. Monosyllables, which, when alone, are regarded as without ac- 
cent, often receive it when placed in a poetical line, and are long or short, 
according as they are with or without the accent. Thus — 

" To rouse him with the spur and rein, 
With more than rapture's ray." 

In the ancient languages, each syllable has a certain quantity, long or 
short, independent of accent, for which there are certain definite rules. 
In this they differ widely from the English. 

1088. Metre, or Measure, is the arrangement of a certain number 

of poetical feet in a verse or line. 

1. When a line has the proper metre, or number of feet, it is called 
Acatalectic. 

2. When it is deficient, it is called Catalectic. 

3. When it has a redundant syllable, it is called Hypercatalectic, or 
Hi.fpermeter. 

1069, A line consisting of one foot is called monometer ; of two, 



228 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

dimeter; of three, trimeter ; of four, tetrameter ; of five, pentame- 
ter ; of six, hexameter ; of seven, heptameter. 

1070. Scanning is dividing a verse into the feet of which it is com- 
posed. 

1071. All feet in poetry are reducible to eight kinds ; four of two 
syllables, and four of three, as follows : — 

I. FEET OF TWO SYLLABLES. 

1. An Iambus ~ - ; as, defend. 

2. A Trochee - ~ ; as, noble. 

3. A Spondee — ; as, vain man. 

4. A Pyrrhic ~ ~ ; as, on a (hill). 

II. FEET OF THREE SYLLABLES. 

1. An Anapaest ~ ~ - ; as, intercede. 

2. A Dactyl ; as, durable. 

3. An Amphibrach - - - ; as, abundant. 

4. A Tribrach - ~ - ; as, (tol)erable. 

1072. Of all these, the principal are the Iambus, Trochee, Ana- 
past, and Dactyl. The other four feet are used chiefly in connec- 
tion with these, in order to give variety to the measure. 

1073. A Trochee has the first syllable accented, and the last unaccented ; 
as, noble 1 , music. 

1074. An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the last ac- 
cented; as, adore, defend. 

1075. A Spondee has both the words or syllables accented ; as, " vain 
man" 

1076. A Pyrrhic has both the words or syllables unaccented ; as, " on 
a {Idliy 

1077. A Dactyl has the first syllable accented, and the two last unac- 
cented ; as, virtuous. 

1078. An Amphibrach has the first and the last syllable unaccented, and 
the middle one accented ; as, contentment. 

1079. An Anapcest has the two first syllables unaccented, and the last 
accented ; as, intercede. 

1080. A Tribrach has all its syllables unaccented ; as, num \ SrabU. 

1081. A verse is usually named from the name of the foot which 
predominates in it ; thus, Iambic, Trochaic, &c. 

I. IAMBIC VERSE. 

1082. An iambic verse consists of iambuses, and consequently has 
the accent on the second, fourth, sixth, &c, syllables. It has differ- 
ent metres, as follows : — 



PROSODY — VERSIFICATION. 229 

1. One foot, or Monometer ; as — 

'Tis sweet 
To meet. 

2. Two feet, or Dimeter ; as — 
With thee | we rise, 

With thee | we reign. 

3. Three feet, or Trimeter ; as — 
In pla | ces far | or near, 

Or fa | mous, or | obscure. 

4. Four feet, or Tetrameter ; as — 
How sleep | the brave, | who sink | to rest, 
By all | their coun | try's wish | es blest. 

5. Five feet, or Pentameter ; as — 

For me | your trib | uta | ry stores | combine ; 
Crea | tion's heir, | the world, ] the world | is mine. 

6. Six feet, or Hexameter ; as — 

His heart | is sad, | his hope [ Is gone | his light | is passed; 
He sits | and mourns, | in si | lent grief, | the ling' | ring day. 

7. Seven feet, or Hep tameter ; as — 

When all | thy mer | cies, | my God, | my ris | mg soul | surveys, 
Transport | ed with | the view | I'm lost, | in won | der, love | and praise. 

1083. Each of these kinds of iambic verse may have an additional 
short syllable, and so be called iambic hypermeter ; thus — 

1. Disdain | ing. 

2. Upon | a moun | tain. 

3. When on | her Mak | er's bo | som. 

4. But hail, | thou god | ess, sage | and ho | ly. 

5. What slen | der youth | bedewed | with liq | uid o | dor. 

6. Whose front | can brave | the storm, | but will | not rear | the flow| er. 

7. To scat| ter o'er| his path |of fame, | bright hues |of gem-| like show| ers. 

1084. It often happens that a trochee, or sometimes a spondee, is 
admitted in place of the first foot, which gives a pleasing variety to 
the verse ; as — 

Planets | and suns | run law | less through | the sky. 
Fierce, hard | y, proud | in con | scious free | dom bold. 

1085. — Iambic Monometer, Dimeter, and Trimeter. — Of these 
metres, there is no regular form, but they are sometimes introduced 
into stanzas. 

1086. Iambic Tetrameter. — This verse may extend through a con- 
siderable number of verses. 

1087. Iambic Pentameter. — Iambic verse of five feet is called 
Heroic verse. Such is Milton's " Paradise Lost," &c. By the ad- 



230 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

mission of trochees, anapaests, &c., in certain places, it is capable of 
many varieties. 

1088. Iambic Hexameter. — A verse of six feet is called Alexan- 
drine. 

1089. The Elegiac stanza consists of four pentameter lines rhym- 
ing alternately ; as — 

The cur | few tolls | the knell | of part j Ing day, 
The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea ; 

The ploughman homeward plods his weary way, 
And leaves the world to darkness and to me. 

1090. The Spencer ian stanza (which takes its name from the poet 
Spencer) consists of eight pentameter or heroic verses, followed by 
one hexameter, or Alexandrine verse. This is the stanza in which 
the " Fairie Queene " is written. 

1091. Iambic Heptameter. — Iambic verses of seven feet, formerly 
written in one line, are now commonly divided into two, one of four, 
and one of three feet ; as — 

When all | thy mer | cies, O | my God, 

My ris | ing soul | surveys, 
Transport | ed with | the view, | I'm lost 

In won | der, love, | and praise. 

1092. This is called common metre. Stanzas having three feet in the 
first, second, and fourth lines, and four in the third, are called short 
metre ; and those consisting of four lines, each containing four feet, are 
called long metre. 

TROCHAIC VERSE. 

1093. Trochaic verse consists of Trochees, and consequently has 
the accent on the first, third, fifth, &c, syllables. It has different 
metres, as follows : — 

1. One foot, or Monometer ; as — 

Staying, 
Playing. 

2. Two feet, or Dimeter ; as — 

Rich the | treasure, 
Sweet the | pleasure. 

3. Three feet, or Trimeter ; as — 

Go where | glory | waits thee ; 
But when | fame e | lates thee. 

4. Four feet, or Tetrameter ; as — 

Maids are | sitting | by the | fountain, 
Bright the | moon o'er | yonder | mountain. 



PROSODY — VERSIFICATION. 231 

5. Five feet, or Pentameter (very uncommon) ; as — 

In the | dark, and | gloomy | valley, 
Satyrs, | by the | brooklet, J love to | dally. 

6. Six feet, or Hexameter; as — 

On a | mountain, | stretched be | neath a j hoary | willow, 
Lay a | shepherd | swain, and | viewed the | rolling | billow, 

1094. Each of these may take an additional long syllable, and so 
become hypercatalectic, or hyper 'meter ; thus — 

1. Tumult | cease, 
Sink to | peace. 

2. In the | days of | old, 
Fables | plainly | told. 

3. Restless | mortals | toil for | nought, 
Bliss in | vain from | earth is | s Ought. 

4. Idle | after | dinner, | in his | chair, 
Sat a | farmer, | ruddy, | fat, and | fair. 

5. Hail to | thee, blithe | spirit ! | bird thou | never | wert, 
That from | heaven, or | near it, | pourest | thy full | heart. 

6. Night and | morning | were at | meeting, | over | Water | l5o, 
Cocks had | sung their j earliest | greeting | faint and | low they | crew. 

1095. In the last two forms, each line is usually divided into two 
thus — 

5. Hail to | thee, blithe | spirit ! 

Bird thou | never | wert. 

6. Night and | morning | were at | meeting, 

Over | Water | loo. 

1096. Trochaic verse, with an additional long syllable at the end, 
is the same as Iambic verse, wanting a short syllable at the begin- 
ning. 

ANAPAESTIC VERSE. 

1097. Anapmstic verse, consists chiefly of anapmts, and, when 
pure, has the accent on every third syllable. It has different metres, 
as follows : — 

1 One foot, or Monometer ; as — 

But too far, 
Each proud star. 

2. Two feet, or Dimeter ; as — 
But his cofir | age 'gan fail, 
or no arts I could avail. 



232 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. Three feet, or Trimeter ; as — 

ye woods! | spread your branch | es apace, 
To your deep | est recess | es I fly, 

1 would hide | with the beasts | of the chase, 
I would van | ish from ev | ery eye. 

4.* Four feet, or Tetrameter ; as — 

May I gov | era my pass | ions with ab | solute sway, 
And grow wis | er and bet | ter as life | wears away. 

1098. Of these, the first is ambiguous, for by placing an accent 
on the first syllable, it becomes a trochaic monometer hypermeter. 

1099. The second sometimes admits an additional short syllable at 
the end; as — 

On the road | by the val | ley, 

As he wand | ered lament | Ing ; 
To the green | of the for | est, 

He returned | him repent | Ing. 

1100. The third is a very pleasing measure, and is much used in 
both solemn and cheerful subjects, but it seldom takes an additional 
syllable. 

1101. The fourth, ox tetrameter, admits an additional syllable, 
which often has a pleasing effect ; as — 

On the warm | cheek of youth | smiles and ros | es are blend | ing. 

DACTYLIC VERSE. 

1102. Dactylic Terse consists chiefly of dactyls, and has the fol- 
lowing varieties : — 

1. One foot, or Monometer ; as — 

Fearfully, 
Tearfully. 

2. Two feet, or Dimeter ; as — 

Free from sa | tiety, 
Care and anx | iety, 
Charms in va j riety 
Fall to his | share. 

3. Three feet, or Trimeter ; as — 

Wearing a, | way in his | youthftilness, 
Loveliness, | beauty, and | truthfulness. 

1103. Each of these sometimes takes an additional long syllable, 
and so becomes hypermeter ; as — 

1. Over a | mead, 
Pricking his | steed. 

2. Covered with | snow was the | vale, 
Sad was the | shriek of the | gale, 
When to the | night, woful | wail 
Rose to the | skies — to the | skies ! 



PROSODY — VERSIFICATION, 



233 



S. Time It has | passed, and the | lady is | pfile, 
Pale as the | lily that | lolls on the | gale. 

1104. by combining these kinds, examples of tetrameter, pentame- 
ter, and even hexameter, are obtained ; but they are seldom used. 

1105. A dactylic verse seldom ends with a dactyl; it more com- 
monly adds a long syllable, sometimes a trochee, as in the following 

lines : — 

Brightest and | best of the | sons of the | morning, 
Dawn on our | darkness and | lend us thine | aid. 

1106. The following is an example of dactyls and spondees alter- 
nately : — 

Green in the | wildwood | proudly the | tall tree | looks on the | brown plain. 

The following is an example of pure dactylic hexameter:-— 
Over the|valley, with|speed like the|wind, all the|steeds were a]galloping. 

HOT. Considering the beauty of this kind of verse, and its peculiar 
adaptedness to gay and cheerful movements, it is surprising that it has 
not been more cultivated. 

MIXED YERSES. 

1108. Scarcely any poem is perfectly regular in its feet. Iambic 
verse, for example, sometimes admits other feet into the line, partic- 
ularly at the beginning, as has been already noticed. The following 
are examples of iambic lines with different feet introduced :— 

Trochee. Prophet | of plagues, | forev | er bod | ing ill! 
Dactyl. Murmuring, | and with | him fled | the shades | of night. 
Anapast. Before | all tern | plSs the up | right heart | and pure. 
Pyrrhic. Brought death | into | the world | and all | our wo. 
Tribrach. And thun | ders down | impet | uous to | the plain. 

1109. In iambic verse, the initial short syllable is sometimes omitted; 
and the verse becomes trochaic with an additional long syllable. 

1110. In trochaic verse, the initial long syllable is sometimes omitted; 
and the line becomes iambic with an additional short syllable. 

1111. If the two short syllables are omitted at the beginning of an 
anapcEstic line, it becomes dactylic with a long syllable added. So— 

1112. If the initial long syllable is omitted in a dactylic verse, it be- 
comes anapcestic with two short syllables added. 

1113. A pleasing movement is produced by intermingling iambuses 
and anapcests, as in the following lines :— 

" I come, | I come ! | ye have called | me long; 
I come | o'er the moiln | tains with light | and song! 
Ye may trace | my steps | o'er the wak | ening earth, 
By the winds | which tell | of the vl | olet's birth, 
By the prim | rose stars | of the shad | owy^grass, 
By the green | leaves op | ening | as I pass.'' 



234 ENGLISH GRAM MAE. 

1114. In odes and lyric pieces, verses of different kinds and different 
metres or measures are often intermingled, after the manner of the an- 
cient choral odes, with a pleasing effect. "Alexander's Feast," Collins's 
" Ode to the Passions," &c, are examples. 

POETIC PAUSES. 

1115. Besides the usual pauses required to mark the sense in read- 
ing, and which may be called sentential pauses, indicated by the 
punctuation, there are other pauses in poetic composition, required 
by, and necessary to give proper effect to, the movement of the line. 

1116. These are chiefly the Final pause and the Censured pause. 

HIT. The final pause is required at the end of every line of poetry, 
even where there is no sentential pause. When that is the case, it con- 
sists in a brief suspension of the voice, without any change in its tone or 
pitch. When a sentential pause occurs at the end of the line, as it does 
very often, it takes the place of, and supercedes the final pause. 

1118. The casural pause is a suspension of the voice somewhere in the 
line itself, for which no rule can be given, but which will always be man- 
ifest when poetry is well read. It does not occur in very short lines. In 
lines of some length, it generally occurs near the middle ; sometimes, 
however, nearer the beginning, and sometimes nearer the end ; often in 
the middle of a foot, but never in the middle of a word. Sometimes, 
besides this, a sort of demicce sural pause is required, to give full effect to 
the expression. The following lines furnish examples of the ccesural 
pause in different parts of the line, and also of the demiccesitral pause. 
The former is marked ("), and the latter ('): — 

"The steer and lion" at one crib shall meet, 
And harmless serpents'' lick the pilgrim's feet." 
' The crested basilisk" and speckled snake." 
"And on the sightless eyeballs" pour the day." 

"But not to me returns 

Day," or the sweet approach of even or morn." 
"No sooner had the Almighty ceased," but all 
The multitude of angels" with a shout, 
Loud'' as from numbers without numbers/' sweet 
/As from blest voices" uttering joy." 
"Warms' in the sun," refreshes' in the breeze, 
Glows' in the stars," and blossoms' in the trees; 
Lives' through all life," extends' through all extent, 
♦Spreads' undivided," operates' unspent." 

EXERCISES. 

As exercises in scanning, lines or stanzas from any poetical work 
may be selected. 



COMPOSITION. 235 

COMPOSITION. 

1119, Composition is the art of expressing our senti- 
ments in spoken or written language. It is of two kinds, 
Prose and Poetry. 

1120. Prose compositions are those in which the thoughts are ex- 
pressed in the natural order, in common and ordinary language. 

1121. Poetic compositions are those in which the thoughts and senti- 
ments are expressed in measured verse, in loftier and more inverted style, 
by words and figures selected and arranged so as to please the ear, and 
captivate the fancy. 

1122. In both of these, speech or discourse is either direct or indirect. 

1123. Direct discourse is that in which a writer or speaker delivers his 
own sentiments. 

1121. Indirect or oblique discourse is that in which a person relates, in 
his own language, what another speaker or writer said. 

1125. In the first, when the speaker refers to himself, he uses the first 
person / or we. When he refers to the person or persons addressed, he 
uses the second person thou, you, &c. 

1126. In the second or indirect discourse, whether the speaker is re- 
ported as referring to himself, or to those whom he addresses, the third 
person is used in either case ; as, he, she, they, &c. An example will best 
illustrate the distinction. Thus : 

1127. DIRECT DISCOURSE. 

Then Paul stood in the midst of Mars-hill and said: " Ye men of Ath- 
ens, I perceive that in all things ye are too superstitious ; for as I passed 
by and beheld your devotions, I found an altar with this inscription : 'To 
the Unknown God.' Whom, therefore, ye ignorantly worship, him de- 
clare I unto you." 

1128. INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 

The same, reported in indirect or oblique discourse, would run thus : — 

Then Paul, standing on Mars-hill, told the men of Athens, he perceived 
that in all things they were too superstitious ; for as he passed by and be- 
held their devotions, he found an altar with this inscription: " To the 
Unknown God." Whom, therefore, they ignorantly worshipped, him de- 
clared he unto them. 

1129. When the reporter, the speaker reported, and the person or per- 
sons addressed, are different in gender or number, there is no danger of 
ambiguity. But when in these respects they are the same, ambiguity is 
unavoidable, from the same pronoun being used in the progress of the 
discourse, to designate different persons. Hence, to prevent mistakes, it 
is often necessary to insert the name or designation of the person meant 
by the pronoun. An example will best illustrate this also : — 

" Then the son went to his father and said to him, [direct] ■ I have 
sinned against Heaven and in thy sight.' " 



236 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

"Then the son went to his father and said to him, [indirect] that he 
(the son) had sinned against Heaven and in his (his father's) sight." 

It will at once be perceived, that, without the words enclosed in 
brackets, for explanation, it would be impossible to tell whether by the word 
he, the father or the son was intended ; so also with respect to the word 
his. Hence, when by the indirect discourse, ambiguity is unavoidable, 
it is generally better to have recourse to the direct form, and quote the 
writer's or speaker's own words, as in (1128). 

1130. The principal kinds of prose composition are — narrative, 
letters, memoirs, history, biography, essays, philosophy, sermons, 
novels, speeches, and orations, 

1131. The principal kinds of poetical composition are— the epi- 
gram, the epitaph, the sonnet, pastorial poetry, didactic poetry, sat- 
ires, descriptive poetry, elegy, lyric poetry, dramatic poetry, and 
epic poetry. 

THE USE OF GRAMMAR IN COMPOSITION. 

1132. To speak and write with propriety, in every species of compo- 
sition, is an attainment of no small importance ; and to lead to this at- 
tainment is the business of grammar. The grammar of a language is 
just a compilation of rules and directions, agreeably to which that lan- 
guage is spoken or written. These rules, however, are not the invention 
of the grammarian, nor dependent on his authority for their validity. As 
it is the business of the philosopher, not to make a law of Nature, nor to 
dictate how her operations should be performed, but, by close observation 
to ascertain what those laws are, and to state them for the information 
of others ; so the business of the grammarian is, not to make the laws of 
language, for language is before grammar, but to observe and note those 
principles, and forms and modes of speech, by which men are accustomed 
to express their sentiments, and to arrange the results of his observation 
into a system of rules for the guidance and assistance of others. It is 
obvious, then, that the ultimate principle or test to which the rules laid 
down by the grammarian must conform, is the best usage. 

1133. Hence, when the inquiry is whether a particular word or form of 

speech is right, is good English, the only question to be decided is, "Is it 
according to the best usage ?" On this subject, however, it has been made 
a question, " What is the best usage ?" The following sentiments, 
abridged from Dr. Crombie's work on English Etymology and Syntax, 
seem to be just, and comprehensive of this whole subject. 

THE LAW OF LANGUAGE. 

1134. The usage which gives law to language, in order to establish its 
authority, or to entitle its suffrage to our assent, must be in the first place 
reputable, by which is meant, not the usage of the court, nor great men, 
nor merely scientific men ; but of those whose works are esteemed by the 
public, and who may therefore be denominated reputable authors. 



COMPOSITION. 237 

1135. In the second place, this usage must ha national. It must not 
be confined to this or that province or district. " Those," to use Camp- 
bell's apposite similitude, " who deviate from the beaten road may be in- 
comparably more numerous than those who travel in it ; yet, into what- 
ever number of by-paths the former may be divided, there may not be 
found in any one of these tracks so many as travel in the king's highway.' 

1136. Thirdly, this usage must be present. It is difficult to fix with 
any precision what usage may in all cases be deemed present. It is per- 
haps in this respect different with different compositions. In general, 
words and forms of speech, which have been long disused, should not be 
employed. And so, on the contrary, the usage of the present day is not 
implicitly to be adopted. Mankind are fond of novelty, and there is a 
fashion in language as there is in dress. Whim, vanity, and affectation, 
delight in creating new words, and using new forms of phraseology. 
Now, to adopt every new-fangled upstart at its birth, would argue, not 
taste, nor judgment, but childish fondness for singularity and novelty. 
But should any of these maintain its ground, and receive the sanction of 
reputable usage, it must in that case be received. 

1137. The usage, then, which gives law to language, and which is gen- 
erally denominated good usage, must be reputable, national, and present. 
It happens, however, that "good usage" is not always uniform in her 
decisions, and that in unquestionable authorities are found far different 
modes of expression. In such cases, the following canons, proposed by 
Dr. Campbell, will be of service in enabling to decide to which phraseol- 
ogy the preference ought to be given. They are given nearly in the words 
of the author ; — 

1138. Canon 1. — When the usage is divided as to any particular 
words or phrases, and when one of the expressions is susceptible of 
a different meaning, while the other admits of only one signification, 
the expression which is strictly univocal should be preferred. 

1139. Canon 2.— In doubtful cases, analogy should be regarded. 

1140. Canon 3. — When expressions are in other respects equal, 
that should be preferred which is most agreeable to the ear. 

1141. Canon 4. — When none of the preceding rules takes place, 
regard should be had to simplicity. 

1142. But though no expression or mode of speech can be justified 
which is not sanctioned by usage, yet the converse does not follow, that 
every phraseology sanctioned by usage should be retained. In many such 
cases, custom may properly be checked by criticism, whose province it is, 
not only to remonstrate against the introduction of any word or phraseology 
which may be either unnecessary or contrary to analogy, but also to ex- 
trude whatever is reprehensible, though in general use. It is by this, her 
prerogative, that languages are gradually refined and improved. In 
exercising this authority, she can not pretend to degrade, instantly, any 
phraseology which she may deem objectionable ; but she may, by re- 
peated remonstrances, gradually effect its dismission. Her decisions in 
such cases may be properly regulated by the following rules, laid down by 
the same author : — 



238 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1143. Rule 1.— All words and phrases, particularly harsh and not 
absolutely necessary, should be dismissed. 

1144. Rule 2. — When the etymology plainly points to a different 
signification from what the word bears, propriety and simplicity re- 
quire its dismission. 

1145. Rule 3. — When words become obsolete, or are never used 
but in particular phrases, they should be repudiated, as they give 
the style an air of vulgarity and cant, when this general disuse ren- 
ders them obscure. 

1146. Rule 4. — All words and phrases which, analyzed grammat- 
ically, include a solecism, should be dismissed. 

1147. Rule 5. — All expressions which, according to the estab- 
lished rules of language, either have no meaning, or involve a con- 
tradiction, or, according to the fair construction of the words, convey 
a meaning different from the intention of the speaker, should be 
dismissed. 

1148. In order to write any language with grammatical purity, three 
things are required : — 

1. That the words be all of that language. The violation of this rule 
is called a barbarism. 

2. That they be construed and arranged according to the rules of syn- 
tax in that language. A violation of this rule is called a solecism. 

3. That they be employed in that sense which usage has annexed to 
them. A violation of this rule is called impropriety. 

1149. A barbarism is an offence against lexicography. The solecism is 
an offence against the rules of syntax ; and the impropriety is an offence 
against lexicography, by mistaking the meaning of words and phrases. 

HINTS FOR CORRECT AND ELEGANT WRITING. 

1150. Correct and elegant writing depends partly upon the choice 
of words, and partly upon the form and structure of sentences. 

I. In so far as respects single words, the chief things to be ob- 
served are purity, propriety, and precision. 

PURITY. 

1151. Purity consists in the rejection of such words and phrases as are 
not strictly English, nor in accordance with the practice of good writers 
or speakers. 

1. Avoid foreign words and modes of expression; as, u Fraicheur, n — 
"politesse" — "He repents him of his folly." 

2. Avoid obsolete and unauthorized words ; as, albeit, aforetime, in- 
spectator, judgmatical. 



COMPOSITION. 239 

PROPRIETY. 

1152. Propriety consists in the use of such words as are best adapted 
to express our meaning. 

1. Avoid low and provincial expressions; as, "To get into a scrape." 

2. In writing prose, reject words that are merely poetical; as, "This 
morn " — " The celestial orbs." 

3. Avoid technical terms, unless you write to those who perfectly un- 
derstand them. 

4. Do not use the same wor'd too frequently, or in different senses ; as, 
" The king communicated his intention to the minister, who disclosed it 
to the secretary, who made it known to the public." — "His own reason 
might have suggested better reasons" 

5. Supply words that are wanting, and necessary to complete the sense. 
Thus, instead of "This action increased his former services," say, "This 
action increased the merit of his former services." 

6. Avoid equivocal or ambiguous expressions ; as, " His memory shall 
be lost on the earth." 

7. Avoid unintelligible and inconsistent expressions; as, "I have an 
opaque idea of what you mean." 

PRECISION. 

1153. Precision rejects superfluous words. 

1. Avoid tautology; as, "His faithfulness and fidelity were une- 
qualled." 

2. Observe the exact meaning of words accounted synonymous. Thus, 
instead of "Though his actions and intentions were good, he lost his 
character" say, " He lost his reputation." 

II. With respect to sentences, clearness, unity, strength and a 
proper application of the figures of speech, are necessary. 

CLEARNESS. 

1154. Clearness demands a proper arrangement of words. 

1. Adverbs, relative pronouns, and explanatory phrases, must be placed 
as near as possible to the words which they affect, and in such a situation 
as the sense requires. 

2. In prose, a poetic collocation must be avoided. 

8. Pronouns must be so used as clearly to indicate the word for which 
they stand. 



1155. Unity retains one predominant object through a sentence, or a 
series of clauses. 

1. Separate into distinct sentences such clauses as have no immediate 
connection. 



240 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. The principal words must, throughout a sentence, be the most prom- 
inent, and the leading nominative should, if possible, be the subject of 
every clause. 

3. Avoid the introduction of parentheses, except when a lively remark 
may be thrown in, without too long suspending the sense of what goes 
before. 



1156. Strength gives to every word and every member its due impor- 
tance. 

1. Avoid tautology, and reject all superfluous words and members. In 
the following sentence, the word printed in italics should be omitted : 
"Being conscious of his own integrity, he disdained submission." 

2. Place the most important words in the situation in which they will 
make the strongest impression. 

3. A weaker assertion should not follow a stronger : and, when the 
sentence consists of two members, the longer should be the concluding 
one. 

4. When two things are compared or contrasted with each other where 
either resemblance or opposition is to be expressed, some resemblance in 
the language and construction should be preserved. 

5. A sentence should not be concluded with a preposition, or any incon- 
siderable word or phrase, unless it is emphatic. 

1157. FIGURES OF SPEECH. 

1. Figurative language must be used sparingly, and never except when 
it serves to illustrate or enforce what is said. 

2. Figures of speech, when used, should be such as appear natural, not 
remote or foreign from the subject, and not pursued too far. 

3. Literal and figurative language ought never to be blended together. 

4. When figurative language is used, the same figure should be pre- 
served throughout, and different figures never jumbled together. 

TRANSPOSITION. 

1158. As a preparatory step to the important business of composition, 
the pupil, after he has acquired a knowledge of grammar, may be exer- 
cised with great advantage upon the transposition of words and members 
in sentences, so as to try in how many different ways the same thought or 
sentiment may be expressed. This will give him a command of language, 
and prove, at the same time, a source of considerable mental cultivation. 
It is often necessary to give an entirely new turn to an expression, before 
a sentence can be rendered elegant, or even perspicuous. 

1159. There are chiefly four ways in which the mode of expressing a 
thought may be varied : — 

1. By changing an active into a passive, or a passive into an active 
verb; as "The sun dissolves the snow" — " The snow is dissolved by the 
sun." 



COMPOSITION. 241 

2. By inversions or transpositions, which consist in changing the order 
in which the words stand in a sentence ; as, " Competence may be acquired 
by industry " — " By industry competence may be acquired." 

3. By changing an affirmative into a negative, or a negative into an 
affirmative, of an entirely contrary character ; as, " Virtue promotes hap- 
piness " — " Virtue does not promote misery.' 

4. By either a partial or an entire change of the words employed to 
express any sentiment; as, "Diligence and application are the best means 
of improvement" — "Nothing promotes improvement like diligence and 
application." 

EXERCISES ON TRANSPOSITION. 

The Roman state evidently declined, in proportion to the increase of 
luxury. I am willing to remit all that is past, provided it can be done 
with safety. A good man has respect to the feelings of others in all that 
he says or does. Bravely to contend for a good cause is noble ; silently 
to suffer for it is heroic. 

EXAMPLE OF TRANSPOSITION. 

The Roman state evidently declined, in proportion to the increase of 
luxury. In proportion to the increase of luxury, the Roman state evi- 
dently declined. The Roman state, in proportion to the increase of lux- 
ury, evidently declined. 

EXERCISES ON VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. 

His conduct was less praiseworthy than his sister's. It is better to be 
moved by false glory than not to be moved at all. I shall attend the 
meeting, if I can do it with convenience. He who improves in modesty 
as he improves in knowledge, has an undoubted claim to greatness of 
mind. The spirit of true religion breathes gentleness and affability. 

EXAMPLE OF VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. 

His conduct was less praiseworthy than his sister's. His sister's con- 
duct was more praiseworthy than his. His sister's mode of acting was 
entitled to more praise than his. His conduct was less entitled to praise 
than that of his sister, &c. 

1160. Another exercise, not destitute of utility as a foundation for 
composition, consists in giving the pupil, especially if very young, a list 
of words, with directions to form from them such sentences as shall con- 
tain these words. 

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION. 

Construct a member of such sentences as shall each covtain one or more 
of the following words : — Contentment, behavior, consideration, elevation, 
distance, application, respect, duty, intercourse, evidence, social, bereave- 
ment, nonsensical, absurdity, elucidate, consternation, temperance, luxury, 
disarm, expatiate, &c. 

li 



242 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



1161. One of the simplest and yet most useful species of composition 
is letter writing. This species of composition may be practiced either by 
way of real correspondence between those pursuing the same studies, or 
it may consist of letters written to imaginary correspondents. The fol- 
lowing are a few topics adapted to composition of this latter kind : — 

Letter 1. — Write to a friend at a distance. State to him the object of 
your writing. Tell him what studies you are pursuing, and how you like 
them. Mention how yourself and friends are. Give an account of some 
of the alterations which have been lately made, or are now making in 
your neighborhood ; and conclude by expressing your desire either to see 
him or hear from him soon. 

Letter 2. — Write to a companion an account of a long walk which you 
lately had. Tell him whether you were alone or in company. Mention 
what particular things struck you by the way ; and enumerate all the in- 
cidents that occurred of any moment. 

Letter 3. — Write to a friend who is supposed to have sent you a present 
of books, and thank him for such kindness. Tell him the use you intend 
to make of them ; and inform him to what particular books you are most 
partial. Conclude by giving some account of those you have been lately 
reading, and how you like them. 

Letter 4:. — Write to a friend supposed to be goingabroad. Describe to him 
how you would feel if called to leave your friends and your native coun- 
try. Express your regret at losing him, but state your hope that you will 
not forget each other when seas roll between you. Request him to write 
to you frequently ; and advise him to be careful about his health and of 
the society he keeps. 

Letter 5. — Write to a friend at a distance, an (J give him an account of 
a sail which you lately had in a steamboat. Mention what places you 
visited, and state the objects that most delighted you. Tell him how lon«- 
you were away, what sort of weather you had, and what were your fee? 
ings upon returning home. 

Letter 6. — Write to a friend an account of the church you were at last 
Sabbath. Tell who preached. Mention the psalms or hymns that were 
sung, and the portions of Scripture that were read. State the text from 
which the minister preached; and give your opinion of the different 
sermons. 

1162. These have been given as mere specimens of the subjects upon 
which the student who has acquired a knowledge of grammar may be re- 
quired to write. The prudent and skillful teacher will be enabled to mul- 
tiply and vary them at pleasure to any extent. 

REPRODUCTION. 

1163. Another method of exercising the minds of pupils in composition, 
consists in reading some simple story or narrative, till such time as they 
are acquainted with the facts, and then directing them to express these 
in their own words. A still further, and perhaps even a simpler method, 
is, to take advantage of a young person's having given some account of 
what he has either seen, heard, or read, and desire him to commit to 
writing what he has stated orally. 



COMPOSITION. 243 



THEMES. 

1161. The next step in composition is the writing of regular themes. 
The subject, however, should always be such as is not above the capacity 
of the person who is desired to compose, for, if it is, the whole benefit 
resulting from the exercise will be nullified. 

1165. A theme is a regular, set subject, upon which a person is required 
to write ; or the dissertation that has been written upon such a subject. 
Some of the simplest subjects for themes are those drawn from natural 
history, or natural philosophy. At all events they should not, in the first 
instance, be drawn from subjects of an abstruse and abstract character. 

1166. The following may serve as specimens in this department: — 

' Theme 1. — The horse. — 1. Describe what sort of animal the horse is. 
2. Tell some of the different kinds. 3. Mention the various ways in 
which this noble animal is serviceable to man. 4. State what would be the 
consequence of wanting him. 5. Mention the treatment to which he is 
entitled, and the cruelty of ill-using such a creature. 

Write themes upon the cow, the dog, the sheep, poultry ; and follow the 
same plan as that followed in writing upon the horse. 

Theme 2. — The sun. — 1. Begin by stating what the sun is. 2. Tell all 
you know of its size, figure, and distance from our earth. 3. Mention 
the effect it has upon the earth, and the benefits we derive from it. 4. 
State what would be the consequence if the sun were extinguished ; and 
what our feelings ought to be toward the Supreme Being for such an 
object. 

Write themes upon the moon, the stars, fire, air, and ivater; and in all, 
follow the same plan. 

Theme 3, — Day and night. — 1. Tell what you mean by day and night. 
2. State whether they are always alike long, and what is the advantage 
arising from their length being different at different seasons. 3. Mention 
the different purposes to which they are adapted. 4. Say of what the 
continued succession of day and night is fitted to remind us, and how 
this should lead us to act. 

Write themes upon the different seasons, and upon mountains, rivers, 
and the tides of the sea ; and follow a similar plan in the whole. 

Theme 4. — On composition. — 1. Explain what you mean by this term. 
2. Point out the necessity of studying this art, by showing how much it 
contributes to add to the value of one's knowledge. 3. Mention what is 
necessary to fit one for composing well. 4. State the means by which 
skill in this art is to be obtained. 

Theme 5. — On company. — 1. Explain what you mean by company. 2. 
Show how natural it is for man to seek society. 3. State the danger of 
keeping either too much company, or of keeping bad company. 4. Point 
out the advantages of good company. 

Write themes upon conversation, study, improvement of time, choice of 
books, memory, and the different organs of sense, &c.; and in all, follow tne 
same method as you did in writing on Company. 

Theme 6. — Narratives. — Describe the place or scene of the actions 
related, the persons concerned in, the time, posture of affairs, state of 
mind, motives, ends, &c, of the actors; results. 



244 



ENGLISH GIUMM A R . 



Write themes upon the discovery of America, the French war, the Revo- 
lutionary war, the battle of Bunker's Hill, the French revolution. 

Theme 7. — Dissertations on remarkable events in sacred or profane 
history. — The place, the origin, the circumstances, results, moral influ- 
ence, &c. 

Following this or a similar arrangement of parts, write a composition 
on: the creation, death of Abel, the deluge, the world after the flood, the 
tower of Babel, the Israelites in Egypt, their deliverance from it, the giving 
of the law from Sinai, the advent of the Messiah — his death — his resur- 
rection, destruction of Jerusalem, etc., the siege of Troy, rise and fall of 
the Roman empire, the crusades, the burning of Moscow, the battle of 
Waterloo, the death of Bonaparte, &c. 

Theme 8. — Give an account of some of the most distinguished char- 
acters in different ages of the world — warriors, statesmen, artists, philos- 
ophers, poets, orators, philanthropists, divines — mentioning what is known 
respecting their country, parentage, education, character, principles, ex- 
ploits, influence on society for good or evil, death. 

1167. The following list of Themes is selected from Parker's Exercises 
in Composition : — 



1. 


On Attention, 


26. On Fortune, 


51. On Ocean, 


2. 


" Adversity, 


27. " 


Fear, 


52. " 


Pride, 


3. 


" Ardor of Mind, 


28. " 


Forgiveness, 


53. " 


Party Spirit, 


4. 


" Art, [cal, 


29. " 


Government, 


54. " 


Poverty, 


5. 


" Attachment, lo- 


30. " 


Grammar, 


55. " 


Principle, 


6. 


" Anger, 


31. " 


Greatness, true, 56. " 


Perseverance, 


7. 


" Air, 


32. " 


Genius, 


57. u 


Patriotism, 


8. 


" Benevolence, 


33. " 


Habit, 


58. " 


Politeness, 


9. 


" Beauty, 


34. " 


Honor, 


59. " 


Providence, 


10. 


u Biography, 


35. " 


Happiness, 


60. " 


Punctuality, 


11. 


u Bad Scholar, 


36. " 


Humility, 


61. " 


Poetry, 


12. 


" Charity, 


37. " 


Hypocrisy, 


62. " 


Piety, 


13. 


" Clemency, 


38. " 


History, 


63. u 


Religion, 


14. 


" Compassion, 


39. " 


Hope, 


64. " 


Reading, 


15. 


" Conscience, 


40. " 


Indolence, 


65. " 


Sincerity, 


16. 


" Constancy, 


41. " 


Industry, 


66. " 


Summer, 


17. 


" Carelessness, 


42. " 


Ingratitude, 


67. " 


Spring, 


18. 


u Curiosity, 


43. " 


Justice, 


68. u 


Sun, 


19. 


" Cheerfulness, 


44. " 


Learning, 


69. u 


System, 


20. 


" Contentment, 


45. " 


Love of Fame, 70. " 


Truth, 


21. 


" Diligence, 


46. " 


Music, 


71. " 


Time, 


22. 


" Duplicity, 


47. " 


Moon, 


72. u 


Talent, 


23. 


u Early Rising, 


48. " 


Novelty, 


73. u 


Vanity, 


24. 


" Envy, 


49. " 


Night, 


74. u 


Virtue, 


25. 


u Friendship. 


50. " 


Order, 


75. " 


Wealth, 


76 


. Knowledge is powes, 


82. Love of Country, 


77 


. Progress of Error, 




83. The Power of Association, 


78 


. Progress of Truth, 




84. The 


Immortality of the Soul, 


79 


. Government of the Tongue, 85. The 


Uses of Knowledge, 


80 


. Government of the 


\ Temper, 86. Power of Conscience, 


81 


. Government of the Affections, 87. The Power of Habit, 



CO M POSITION. 



245 



89. 

90. 

91. 

92. 

93. 

94. 

95. 

96. 
106. 
107. 
108. 
109. 
110. 
111. 



112. 
113. 



Life is Short, 
Miseries of Idleness, 
Never too old to Learn, 
Public Opinion, 
Diligence insures success, 
Idleness destroys Character, 
Contrivance proves Design, 
Avoid Extremes, 



97. Pleasures of Memory, 

98. Example better than Precept, 

99. Misery is wed to Guilt, 

100. Value of Time, 

101. Virtue, the way to Happiness, 

102. No one lives for Himself, 

103. Thou God seest me, 

104. Trust not Appearances, 

105. Whatever is, is Right. 



Visit to an Almshouse, 

"An honest man's the noblest work of God." 

Every man the architect of his own fortune. 

Man, " Mysterious link in being's endless chain." 

"A little learning is a dangerous thing." 

How blessings brighten, as they take their flight. 

Advantages derived from the invention of the mariner's compass 
— of the telescope — the steam-engine — the art of printing — of 
gunpowder. 

History of a needle — a cent — a Bible — a beaver hat. 

Description of a voyage to England — coast of Afiica — Constanti- 
nople — South America — East Indies — China. 



APPENDIX. 



APPENDIX I. 

GENDER OF NOUNS. 

In all languages, the distinction of nouns with regard to sex, has been 
noted. Every substantive denotes either a male or female, or that which 
is neither the one nor the other. This accident, or characteristic of nouns, 
is called their Gender. In English, all words denoting male animals, are 
considered as masculine ; all those denoting female animals, feminine; 
and those denoting things neither male nor female, are termed neuter. 
"In this distribution," says Crombie, "we follow the order of nature, and 
our language is, in this respect, both simple and animated." Both in 
Latin and Greek, many words denoting tilings without sex, are ranked as 
masculine or feminine, without any regard to their meaning, but simply 
On account of their terminations. In French, all nouns are regarded as 
either masculine or feminine, which is a still greater departure" from the 
order and simplicity of nature, for which the English language on this 
point is distinguished. 

Some have objected to the designation of three genders ; they think 
that as there are but two sexes, it would be more philosophical and accu- 
rate to say there are only two genders ; and to regard all words not be- 
longing to these, as without gender. A little reflection, I think, will show 
that this objection has no just foundation, either in philosophy or in fact 
and that the change it proposes would be no improvement. It has prob- 
ably arisen from confounding the word gender, which properly signifies a 
kind, class, or species, (Lat. genus, French genre), with the word sex, and 
considering them as synonymous. This, however, is not the case ; these 
words do not mean the same thing ; and they can not be properly applied 
in the same way. We never say, " the masculine sex, the feminine sex ;" 
nor " the male gender, the female gender." In strict propriety of speech, 
the word sex can be predicated only of animated beings ; the word gen- 
der, only of the term by which that being is expressed. The being man, 
has sex, not gender ; the word man, has gender, not sex. Though there- 
fore it is very absurd to speak of three sexes, yet it may be very proper 
to speak of three genders ; that is to say, there are three classes (genders) 
of nouns, distinguished from one another by their relations to sex. One 
denotes objects of the male sex, and is called masculine ; another denotes 
objects of the female sex, and is called feminine; and the third denotes 
objects neither male nor female, for which a name more appropriate than 
the term neuter need not be desired. 

The term "Common gender" applied to such words as parent, child, 
friend, etc., does not constitute a distinct class of words, which are 
neither masculine, nor feminine, nor neuter, but is used for convenience, 



APPENDIX — PRONOUNS MINE, ETC. — WHAT A RELATIVE. 2-47 

merely to indicate that such words sometimes denote a male, and some- 
times a female. Instead of " common," those who prefer it, may call 
such words "masculine or feminine." 



APPENDIX II. 



THE PRONOUNS MINE, THINE, ETC. 



Some grammarians have given it as their opinion that mine, thine, ours, 
yours, theirs, are not pronouns in the possessive case, but that they are 
something or other in the nominative or objective case, but never in the 
possessive. This is surely a very singular notion. The anomaly which 
such an idea would introduce into our language, would be a curious one. 
According to this view, these words could belong to no part of speech 
hitherto denned. They are not nouns, for they are not the names of any- 
thing—nor adjectives, for they do not qualify nouns, nor can ever be joined 
with them — nor pronouns, for they never stand instead of a noun, but 
always instead of a noun and a possessive pronoun together. They have 
always the sense of the possessive case, and are always construed just as 
the possessive case of a noun is, not followed by a noun ; and yet they 
are never in the possessive case. These words, standing by themselves, 
have no fixed or determinate meaning, and yet in sentences they may 
have as many different meanings as there are objects capable of being 
possessed. Mine, for example, may mean my horse, my farm, my hat, 
my stick, my gun, my— anything you please. And besides this, those of 
them which are singular in* form, according to analogy, .may have & plural 
verb, and those of them which are plural may have a singular verb ; thus, 
" John's books are new; mine are old;" again, "John's house is built of 
stone ; ours is built of brick." Such is the result to which this notion 
leads us ; and if these words are not possessives, but in the nominative or 
objective, as some allege, there certainly are no more curious words in 
the English, or in any other language. 



APPENDIX III. 

What AS A RELATIVE. 

u Various opinions have been entertained about the nature of the rela- 
tive what. It is said to be ' a compound relative pronoun, including both 
the antecedent and the relative, and equivalent to that which, or the thing 
which.'' Though this may seem plausible, yet we shall find, on examina- 
tion, that what is nothing more than a relative pronoun, and includes 
nothing else. Compare these two sentences : — 

" l I saw whom I wanted to see' — 

" 'I saw what I wanted to see.' 

" If what, in the latter, is equivalent to that which, or the thing which, 
whom, in the former, is equivalent to him whom, or the person whom. 
^Who steals my purse steals trash,' is equivalent to he who, or, the man 
who. 

"And, on the same principle, when the relative is omitted, the antece- 
dent should be represented as equivalent to the relative and the antece- 



248 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

dent. Thus, ' I saw the man I wanted to see.' Here, man should be 
represented as equivalent to the man whom. 

" The cause of the error in respect to what, is, that the antecedent is 
never expressed with it. It is not like the word who, which is used both 
when the antecedent is expressed, and when it is omitted. The relative 
that, however, was formerly used in many cases where we use what, that 
is, with the antecedent omitted. A few examples of this will help us to 
ascertain the nature of what : ' We speak that we do know.' — English 
Bible. — ' I am that I am.' — lb. 

" ' Who had been seen imagine mote thereby, 

That whylome of Hercules hath been told.' — Spenser. 
" 'Eschewe that wicked is.' — Gower. 
" ' Is it possible he should not know what he is, and be that he isS-Shak. 
" ' Gather the sequel by that went before.' — lb. 
"In these examples, that is a relative, and is exactly synonymous with 
what. No one would contend, that that stands for itself, and its antece- 
dent at the same time. The antecedent is omitted because it is indefinite, 
or easily supplied." — Butler's Grammar, p. 48. 

These remarks appear to me just, and conclusive on this point. 



APPENDIX IV. 

IS as EVER A RELATIVE? 

That the word as should not be considered a relative in any circum- 
stances, I think is plain from the following considerations : — 

1. It has neither the meaning, nor the use of a relative. Its office is 
simply to connect things compared, and, together with its antecedent 
word, to express the idea of equality, likeness, &c, between them ; thus, 
u James is as tall as his father." — " Your hat is such as mine." 

2. It does not, like a relative, relate to a noun or pronoun before it, 
called the antecedent, nor stand instead of it, or of any other word, but 
is related only to the comparative word, as, such, so, &c, in the preceding 
clause. Thus, in the sentence, "As many as received him," the second 
as relates to the first, and the two convey the idea of equality. Again, 
" Send such books as you have." Here, as refers not to books, but to 
such. Take away such, and as can not be used. 

3. As can never be used as a substitute for another relative pronoun, 
nor another relative pronoun as a substitute for it. 

4. In sentences in which as is said to be a relative, it evidently has the 
same meaning and use as those in which it is allowed to be only a con- 
junction. Compare the following examples : "As many as five men re- 
ceived a reward." — "As many as received him." — "As many as they can 
give." In all these, the phrase "as many as" means, and is felt to mean, 
the same thing — equality of number. There surely, then, can be no pro- 
priety in calling the second as a conjunction in the first sentence, and a 
relative in the other two. The same thing will be evident if we change 
the antecedent word. Thus, "Such books as these are useful." — "Such 
books as are useful." — "Such books as you can give." 



APPENDI X — A DJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 2-A9 

5. If the word as in the preceding sentences and clauses is a relative 
pronoun, for the same reason alleged for this, the word than must be a 
relative in those which follow. The construction is precisely the same*; 
" More books than were wanted." — " More books than are useful. 1 ' — 
" More books than you can give." Now, if, in the second of these exam- 
ples, than is not a relative in the nominative case before are, nor in the 
third a relative in the objective case after can give, what need for consid- 
ering as a relative in the same position, in the same construction, and for 
the same purpose, to denote comparison? There is the same ellipsis in 
both, and the same words necessary to be supplied, in the one case, as in 
the other." Thus, " More books than [those which] were wanted." — 
"More books than [those which] are useful*' &c. So, "Such books as 
[those which] were wanted." — "As many books as [those which] are 
necessary," &c. 



APPENDIX V. 



ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 



The fourth class of pronouns, sometimes called adjective pronouns, and 
sometimes pronominal adjectives, is usually subdivided into possessive, dis- 
tributive, demonstrative, and indefinite. Of these, the first or possessive 
are derived from the personal, and in meaning are strictly pronouns, be- 
ing always the representative or substitute of a noun ; but in construction 
they are adjectives, and are always joined with a noun, and hence are 
appropriately denominated adjective pronouns, i. e. pronouns used adjec- 
tively. By some, they are classed with adjectives, and called pronominal 
adjectives. 

In many grammars the possessives my, thy, his, her, its, our, your, their, 
are set down as the possessive case of the personal pronouns, with mine, 
thine, his, hers, its, ours, yours, theirs, making two forms of the possessive 
case : thus, my or mine, thy or thine, etc. Which of these methods is 
adopted in teaching or studying grammar, is a matter of no practical 
moment: some grammarians adopt the one, and some the other, merely 
as a matter of taste, without any controversy on the subject. The classi- 
fication in the text is preferred as being on the whole more simple, 
because the possessives my, thy, etc., like the adjective, can never stand 
alone, as the possessive case does, but must be supported by a noun fol- 
lowing them ; thus, we say, "It is the king's;" "It is yours;" but we 
can not say, " It is your," — the presence of a noun being necessary to 
the last expression. - 

This classification is favored by the analogy of other languages both 
ancient and modern. The possessives my, tliy, &c, for example, have 
precisely the same meaning as the Latin 3 feus, mea, meum; or the French 
Mon, ma ; or the German Mein, (or meiner), meine, mein ; or the Anglo- 
Saxon (which is the mother of the English language), Min, mine, min ; 
and they are used in precisely the same way. There seems, therefore, to 
be no good reason for giving them a different classification. Indeed, the 
only circumstance which renders it possible to regard them as a possessive 
case in English, is, that like the English adjective they are indeclinable. 
11* 



250 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Had they been declinable, like the Latin or French, etc., they never could 
have been used as a possessive case. 

The words belonging to the other three divisions, have been found more 
difficult to arrange in a satisfactory manner. They seem to occupy a sort 
of middle ground between adjectives and pronouns, and are sometimes 
used as the one and sometimes as the other, without the strict and appro- 
priate character of either. They are generally adjectives in construction, 
having a noun expressed or understood, which they serve to limit or re- 
strict in various ways. On the other hand, with few exceptions, they are 
so often used without a noun, or as its substitute, that they are not im- 
properly regarded as pronouns, though in a sense less strict than the 
others ; thus, u Let each esfeem others better than themselves." — "Among 
men, some are good, others bad, none perfect." — "All things come alike 
to all" etc. 

From this equivocal or rather double character of these words, they 
have been variously arranged by different authors. Some, among whom 
are Grant, Crombie, Hiley, Sutcliffe, Allen, Cooper, Brown, etc. class them 
with adjectives, and call them "Pronominal Adjectives ;" and others, such 
as Lowth, Priestly, Smart, Murray, Lennie, Booth, Churchill, Wright, 
Cobbet, Kirkham, Smith, and many others, class them with pronouns, and 
call them "Adjective Pronouns." Since all are agreed about the use of 
these words, it seems in itself a matter of less importance to which of 
these two classes they be attached, or whether they are more appropri- 
ately called Pronominal Adjectives, or Adjective Pronouns. 



APPENDIX VI. 



THE VERB. 



Though there is little, if any, difference of judgment among gramma- 
rians, as to what a verb is, yet all have probably found it a difficult 
matter to give an accurate and at the same time a brief definition of it ; 
and, accordingly, nearly all grammars differ in their definition of this part 
of speech. The old definition, that u a verb is a word which signifies to 
he, to do, or to suffer" though unexceptionable as any, as far as it goes, is 
yet greatly defective in stating nothing respecting the functions or me 
of this part of speech. 

The use of the verb in simple propositions is to affirm or declare, and 
that of which it affirms is called its subject or nominative. This is always 
the office of the verb in the indicative, potential, or subjunctive. In the 
use of its other parts, however, namely, the imperative, infinitive, and 
participles, there is properly no affirmation, though the action or state 
expressed by the verb in these parts is clearly seen to be the act or state 
of some person or thing, and which for that reason is strictly and properly, 
though not technically, its subject. Thus, "For me to die is gain," is a 
simple proposition, containing two verbs, the first of which, to die, in the 



APPENDI X — D IVISION OF VERBIS. 251 

infinitive, expresses no affirmation, though it evidently, without affirming, 
attributes dying to a person, expressed by the word me. So when we 
say, "I see a man walking" the word walking expresses an act of the 
person man, though there is properly no affirmation. In like manner, 
when I say, " Do this," the verb do attributes action imperatively to the 
person addressed, but there is no affirmation. To speak of "affirming 
imperatively" is certainly not very intelligible, though, for want of a bet- 
ter expression, we sometimes use it in a loose sense. 

For these reasons, the definition of a verb which says it is "a part of 
speech which asserts or affirms," appears to me to be defective. It stated 
one function of this class of words, but excludes, or at least does not in- 
clude, others. It gives, as the distinguishing characteristic of a verb, that 
which does not belong to it in several of its parts and uses. It is too re- 
strictive. 

The definition formerly given in my " Principles of English Grammar," 
is liable to an objection of an opposite kind: it is too general, and not 
sufficiently distinctive. A verb does, indeed, "express an action or state," 
but there are other words that do so also. Nouns, such as love, desire, 
ivish, hope, &c, and most verbal nouns, such as eruption, fiction, collision, . 
diffusion, progression, &c, express action, and many words, both nouns 
and adjectives, express a state. 

The definition given in the text, though perhaps not unexceptionable, 
occupies a middle place between these extremes, avoids the indefiniteness 
of the old definition, and is probably less liable to objection than most of 
those which have been given. 



APPENDIX VII. 

DfVISION OF VERBS. 

The division of verbs into Transitive and Intransitive is now so gene- 
rally adopted by grammarians, instead of the former division into Active, 
Passive, and Neuter ; and its propriety and simplicity so obvious, that it 
seems now unnecessary to argue the point. Of this division, it is need- 
ful only to observe — 

1st. It divides all verbs into two classes, Transitive and Intransitive, 
distinguished by a clear and definite characteristic, derived from their use 
in the construction of sentences. To the first, belong those which are 
used transitively, whatever be their meaning or form ; and to the second, 
all that are used intransitively, whether they denote action or not (319). 

2d. This arrangement and nomenclature leaves the term Active and 
Passive at liberty to be applied exclusively to the two forms which all 
transitive verbs assume, called the active and the passive voice. 

3d. It dispenses with the term neuter altogether, as applied to verbs, 
and leaves it to be appropriated in grammar to the designation of gender 
only. 



252 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



APPENDIX VIII. 

THE PRESENT INDICATIVE PASSIVE, AND THE PARTICIPLE IN ing IN A PAS- 
SIVE SENSE. 

According to the definition, the passive voice expresses, passively, the 
same thing that the active does actively. For example, " Csesar con- 
quered Gaul," and " Gaul was conquered by Caesar," express precisely the 
same idea. This, however, is not always done by the regular passive 
form in the present tense, though it generally is done in the other tenses. 
Thus, it will be felt at once that the expressions, " Caesar conquers Gaul," 
and " Gaul is conquered by Caesar," do not express the same thing. 

In regard to this matter, there are evidently two classes of verbs ; 
namely, those whose present-passive expresses precisely the same thing 
passively, as the active voice does actively, and those in which it does not. 

I. To the first of these classes belong — 

1. All those verbs which, in the regular present-passive, imply a con- 
tinuance of the act ; such as to love, to hate, to regard, to esteem, to envy, 
to please, &c. Thus, " James loves me," and "I am loved by James," ex- 
press precisely the same idea, and consequently continuance is implied as 
much in the passive form as in the active. Hence, "is loved'''' is a true 
passive, in both form and meaning. In verbs of this class the progress- 
ive form in the active voice is seldom used, because it would express the 
same thing generally as the common form; thus, "James loves me," and 
"James is loving me" (though improper), express the same thing. 

2. To this class belong all verbs when used to express general truths, 
or what is usual or customary from time to time. Thus, "Vinegar dis- 
solves pearls" — " Vice produces misery" — "The cobbler mends shoes" — 
" Masons build houses," &c. These verbs, used in this way, express pre- 
cisely the same thing in the regular passive form as they do in the active. 
Thus, "Pearls are dissolved by vinegar" — ^Misery is produced by vice" 
— " Shoes are mended by the cobbler " — " Houses are built by masons," 
&c. In verbs used in this way, the progressive form is not employed. 
The use of it would change the meaning from a general expression to a 
particular act. Thus, " Vice is producing misery," would immediately 
direct the mind, not- to a general truth, but to a particular case. But, 
again, when these verbs express a particular act, and not a general truth, 
the present active and the present passive express different ideas ; thus, 
"James builds a house," represents an act in progress; but when we say, 
"A house is built by James," the act or operation of building, is repre- 
sented as completed. 

3. To this class belong all verbs which by the figure called vision (1046 
-5), are used in the present tense to express what is past. Thus, actively, 
"Caesar leaves Gaul, crosses the Rubicon, enters Italy." Passively, "Gaul 
is left by Cassar, the Rubicon is crossed, Italy is entered.'' 1 In all these, 
used in this figurative way, the present-passive expresses the same thing 
as the present-active. 

II. The second class of verbs consists of those (perhaps the greater 
number) whose present-passive implies that the act expressed by the act- 
ive voice has ceased, and the effect or result only remains as a finished 



APPENDIX — PRESENT INDICATIVE, ETC. 253 

act, and as such is predicated of the subject. Thus, "The house is built." 
Here it is implied that the act of building is completed, and has ceased, 
and the result, expressed by built, is predicated of the house. In all 
verbs of this kind, the past participle, after the verb to be, has reference 
to the state resulting from the act as predicated of, or qualifying the sub- 
ject of the verb, and not to the act itself. Strictly speaking, then, the 
past participle with the verb to be is not the present tense in the passive 
voice of verbs thus used ; that is, this form does not express passively 
the doing of the act. These verbs either have no present-passive, or it is 
made by annexing the participle in ing, in its passive sense, to the verb 
to be; as, "The house is building." 

It is supposed by some that "is built," though in the form of the pres- 
ent-passive, really is a present-perfect ; because it represents the act as 
completed, and because the perfect-definite, in Latin, is often translated 
by this form into English. Due consideration, however, I think will show 
that it differs quite as much from the present-perfect as it does from the 
present. To be satisfied of this, compare the following expressions : 
"This garment is torn," merely asserts the present state of the garment, 
with no reference to the act but what is implied. But when we say, 
" This garment has been torn," the reference is chiefly to the act as having 
been done, with no reference to the state of the garment but what is im- 
plied. The one asserts that the garment remains torn, the other does not 
— it may have been mended ; the latter is the regular passive of the 
present-perfect active, the former is not. This will perhaps be more 
clearly perceived by means of another example : " This house has been 
painted, but the paint is worn off, 1 ' This is good English. But if we say, 
" This house is painted, but the paint is worn off," we would assert a con- 
tradiction. 

There is properly no passive form, in English, corresponding to the 
progressive form in the active voice, except where it is made by the par- 
ticiple in ing, in a passive sense; thus, "The house is building" — "The 
garments are making" — "Wheat is selling," &c. An attempt has been 
made by some grammarians, of late, to banish such expressions from the 
language, though they have been used in all time past by the best writers, 
and to justify and defend a clumsy solecism, which has recently been in- 
troduced chiefly through the newspaper press, but which has gained such 
currency, and is becoming so familiar to the ear, that it seems likely to 
prevail, with all its uncouthness and deformity. I refer to such expres- 
sions as " The house is being built" — " The letter is being written" — 
" The mine is being worked" — " The news is being telegraphed," &c. &c. 

Respecting this mode of expression, it may be noticed — 

1. That it had no existence in the language till within the last fifty 
years. This, indeed, would not make the expression wrong, were it other- 
wise unexceptionable, but its recent origin shows that it is not, as is pre- 
tended, a necessary form. 

2. This form of expression, when analyzed, is found not to express 
what it is intended to express, and would be used only by such as are 
either ignorant of its import, or are careless and loose in their use of lan- 
guage. To make this manifest, let it be considered, first, that there is no 
progressive form of the verb to be, and no need of it ; hence, there is no 



2o4 ENGLISH GRAM M A R . 

such expression in English as is being. Of course, the expression u is 
being built," for example, is not a compound of is being and built, but of 
is and being built ; that is, of the verb to be and the present participle 
passive. Now, let it be observed that the only verbs in which the present 
participle passive expresses a continued action are those mentioned above 
as the first class, in which the regular passive form expresses a continu- 
ance of the action ; as, is loved, is desired, &c, and in which of course the 
form in question (is being built) is not required. Nobody would think of 
saying, u He is being loved" — "This result is being desired." 

In all other verbs, then, the present participle passive, like the present 
tense, in the second class of verbs mentioned above, expresses, not acon- 
tinued action, or the continued receiving of an action, but that the action 
had ceased, and the result only exists in a finished state. Thus, " Our ar- 
rangement being made, we departed." — "The house being finished, was 
immediately occupied." — " Our work being finished, we may rest," &c. 
In all such expressions, the present participle passive represents the action 
as now finished, and existing only in its results (509). This finished act, 
then, can not be made unfinished and progressive, by being asserted of a 
subject, which is all the verb to be, as a copula, can express. Hence, it is 
manifest that is being built, if it mean anything, can mean nothing more 
than is built, which is not the idea intended to be expressed. 

8. For the same reason that is being built, &c, is contended for as a 
proper expression, we should contend also for "Has been being built" — 
"Had been being built" — " Shall have been being built" — "Might have 
been being built" — " To be being built" — " To have been being built." — 
" Being being built" — " Having been being built." When all these shall 
have been introduced, our language will be rich indeed. 

4. The use of this form is justified only by condemning an established 
usage of the language, namely, the passive sense in some verbs of the 
participle in ing (457). In reference to this it is flippantly asked, " What 
does the house build V" — "What does the letter write?" &c. — taking for 
granted, without attempting to prove, that the participle in ing can not 
have a passive sense in any verb. The following are a few examples from 
writers of the best reputation, which this novelty would condemn: 
" While the ceremony was performing." — Tom Brown. " The court was 
then holding." — Sir G. M Kenzie. "And still be doing, never done." — 
Butler. "The books are selling." — Alleys Gram. " The work of the 
temple was carrying on." — Dr. Owen. " To know nothing of what is 
transacting in the regions above us." — Dr. Blair. "The spot where this 
new and strange tragedy was acting." — E. Everett. " The fortress was 
building." — Irving. "An attempt is making in the English parliament." 
— D. Webster. "The church now erecting in the city of New York."- — 
N. A. Review. "This movement was making." — Coopter. "These things 
were transacting in England." — Bancroft. 

5. This new doctrine is in opposition to the almost unanimous judgment 
of the most distinguished grammarians and critics, who have considered 
the subject, and expressed their views concerning it. The following are 
a specimen : " Expressions of this kind are condemned by some critics ; 
but the usage is unquestionably of far better authority, and (according to 
my apprehension) in far better taste, than the more complex phraseology 



APPENDIX — FIRST AND SECOND, ETC. 255 

Cd has been being published, had been being pubhshed, shall orwdlbe 
hJwrnMished shall or will have been being pubhshed, and so on through 
uK 6 ootid tense, What a language ^n-havewl^n our verb 
are thus conjugated!"— Brown' » Or. of hng. Grs. p. 361. He \> ai oo 
serves" '^he participle in ing is also passive in many >nstanceB; ^ 
'The house is building'— 'I heard of a plan forming.'" &c— Quoted in 
Sftl"t« 49. " It would be an absurdity, indeed, to give 
up th only w a? we^Tve of denoting the incomplete state of action by a 
mssivefonn" (viz., by the participle in ing in the passive sensc).-^r- 
SS» Grammar, p. 46. "The present participle is often used 
mssivelv as ' The ship fe building.' The form of expression ts buy 
SI \beina committed, &c, is almost nniversally condemned by gtu>- 
mtKbmfitrsometimes'met with in respectable writers; ,t occurs 
mo, frequently in newspaper paragraphs and in hasty compositions. See 
Worcester's Universal and Critical Dictionary."- Weld > Grammar, pp. 
118 and 180. " When we say, ' The house is building, the advocates of 
he new theory ask, ' Bunding* Wt?' We might ^^>irn when you 
sav 'The field ploughs well'-' Ploughs what?'— 'Wheat selh, well.— 
?Sells what ?' If usage allows us to say, ' Wheat sells at a dollar ' in a sense 
wWch to not active, why may it not also allow us to say, wheat is selling 
at a dollar, in a sense that is not active V'-Hart's Gram., p. W. The 
nrevading practice of the best authors is in favor of the simple form ; as, 
F T he house P is building.' "- Wells's Sehool Gram. p. 148. • Severa other 
expressions of this sort now and then occur, such as the new-fangled and 
Zt uncouth solecism Hs being done,' for the good old English idiom *s 
doing '-zu absurd periphrasis driving ^fV^^V^l *£*>*** 
English language."— if. A . Review, quoted by Mr Wells, p. 148 Ihe 
phrase 4s being built,' and others of a similar kind have been for a few 
years insinuating themselves into our language ; still they are not Eng- 
\L."-Harrison's Rise, Progress, and Present Structure ofthehnghsh 
Language. This mode of expression [the house is being bu.lt] is be- 
coming quite common. It is liable,- however, to several important objec- 
tions. It appears formal and pedantic. It has not, as far as I know the 
support of any respectable grammarian. The easy and natural expres- 
sion is, the house is building.— Prof. J. W. Gibbs. 

APPENDIX IX. 

• FIRST AKD SECOND, ETC. 

Two or more adjectives connected, without an article intervening, be- 
fong to the same noun ; as, "A red and white rose "-that is, one rose 
partly red and partly white. Hence, care should be taken to see that the 
qualities expressed by adjectives so used be consistent, or such as»aybe 
found in one object. Thus, it would be improper to say, An old and 



256 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

young man — "A round and square hole M — "A hot and cold spring"— 
because a man can not be old and young at the same time ; nor a hole 
round and square ; nor a spring hot and cold. Hence— 

When two or more adjectives express qualities that belong to different 
objects ot the same name, and that name expressed only with the last 
the article should be placed before each adjective. Thus, "A red and a 
white rose ' means two roses—one red, and one white. In this case it 
makes no difference whether the qualities expressed by the adjective 'be 
consistent or not since they belong to different individuals. Thus we 
can say, "A young and an old man "—"A round and a square hole "—"A 
hot and a cold spring "—that is, one man young, and another old, &c 
It is therefore manifest that we can not properly say, "The first and 
second page »-" The fifth and sixth verse "-"The Old and New Testa- 
ment —because no page can be at once first and second— no verse fifth 
and sixth, and no Testament Old and New. It is equally improper in 
principle to say, "The first and second pages"— "The fifth and sixth 
verses, because two adjectives can not be joined with a word jointly 
which can not be joined with it separately. We can not say " The first 
pages nor "the second pages," when we mean but one first and one 
second. Besides, when the ellipsis is supplied, it stands "the first paae 
and the second page," and the omission of the first noun can not, on any 
correct principle, affect the number of the second. In many cases, too. 
the use of the plural, if it would relieve from the absurdity of uniting incon- 
sistent qualities in an object, will as certainly lead into ambiguity. For 
if to avoid the absurdity of saying "the old and young man," we say 
the old and young men," the latter expression may mean fiftv or a 
hundred, or any number of men, instead of two— one young and one 
old. Notwithstanding, however, usage has prevailed over principle in 

< ti ^ W f *, m 0th ? r CaS6S ; and lt has become ^e common to say, 
The first and second verses"— "The Old and New Testaments"— "The 
hot and cold springs "—" The indicative and subjunctive moods" &c. 
T\ here no ambiguity exists in the use of such expressions, they must be 
tolerated. ^ The correct expression, however, in all cases in which one is 
intended, is made by repeating the article with the adjective, and retaining 
the noun in the singular; thus, "The first and the second verse"— "The 
Old and the New Testament "— " The hot and the cold spring," &c. Or, 
" The first verse and the second," &c. 

APPENDIX X. 

TWO FIRST THREE LAST, ETC. 

The expressions, two first, three last, and the like, have been opposed 
and ridiculed by some, on the ground, as they allege, that there can be 
only one first, and one last. The objectors evidently have not well con- 
sidered their position ; for — 

1. The terms first and last do not necessarily mean only one Firrt 
according to Webster, means, "preceding all others." The two first, 
then, means the two preceding all others, and the three last means the 
three succeeding all others— expressions in which there is surely nothing 
either ridiculous or absurd. 



APPENDIX TWO FIRST, THREE LAST, ETC. 257 

2. If we say, "The first days of summer" — "The first years of our 
life" — "The last days of Pompeii," which nobody doubts, then, it is not 
true that there can be only one first and one last, and so the ground 
of the objection fails. If we can say, "The last days of summer," why 
not the two last, or the three last. 

3. The expression objected to is used by the best authorities in the 
language, and has been in use hundreds of years, and therefore, on the 
well-known maxim, " Usage is the law of language," if it were absurd, it 
can not be rejected. The following are examples, most of them men- 
tioned by Mr. Wells: "The four first acts." — Bp. Berkeley. — "The three 
first monarchies." — Warburton. — "The two first persons." — Latham's 
JEng. Gram. — "My two last letters." — Addison. — "The two first lines." — 
Blair. — "The three first generations." — E. Everett. — "The two first 
years." — Bancroft. — "The two first days." — Irving. — "The two first can- 
tos." — A. H. Everett. — "The four first centuries." — Prescott. — "The two 
last productions." — N. A. Review. — " The four first are — poetical." — 
Cheever. — "The three first of his longer poems." — Southey. — "The two 
last schools." — Johnson. — " The six first French kings." — Macauley. 

4. This expression is, in some cases, evidently better than the other. 
It is probably always so, when the number characterized as first or last 
constitutes a majority of the whole. When we say, "the first four," 
there is evidently a reference to a second four, or a last four. But if the 
first four constitute a majority of the whole, there remains no second four 
to justify the reference. Thus, when we say, "The first four acts of a 
play were well performed," there remains only one to which any other 
reference can be made. On the other hand, when a whole is divided into 
equal portions, each containing a certain number, as the recurrence 
of the census every five years — of the Olympic games every four — of the 
sabbath every seven days — of four lines in each stanza of a poem, and 
the like — then the expression, first four, second four, last four, &c, is 
preferable, because it implies a reference to other portions of equal ex- 
tent. Also, even when there is no such reference, it is often properly 
used, especially when the number is large ; as, " The first hundred " — "The 
last thousand," &c. 

5. Several distinguished scholars and grammarians have examined this 
point, and expressed their views respecting it as follows: "It has been 
doubted whether the cardinal should precede or follow the ordinal nu- 
meral." — Atterbury says in one of his letters to Pope : "Not but that the 
four first lines are good." — "We conceive the expression to be quite cor- 
rect, though the other form be often employed to denote the same con- 
ception." — Crombids English Syntax, p. 240. — " Some grammarians ob- 
ject to the use of the numerals two, four, &c, before the adjectives first 
and last. There seems^ however, to be no good reason for the objection, 
and the expressions two first, two last, &c, are fully sanctioned by good 
usage." — Wells's Grammar, p. 137. — The following is a note on the same 
page : "It has been fashionable of late to write the first-three, and so on, 
instead of the three first. People write in this way to avoid the seeming 
absurdity of implying that more than one thing can be first ; but it is at 
least equally as absurd to talk about the first four, when, as often hap- 
pens, there is no second four." — Arnold, — " Surely if there can be only 






ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



owe last, orae first, there can be only <a/W «■,«'!„ ^ , „ , T 
^observe, that usage is ^i^ H l^tU£t^Li^ 

so, then the ^ect^J ZlSZTj^ K>/XS ,* * ^ 
ber, and can never a°ree with n'nnna ir, +vl 7 , 7 ,„ e un 9 ul »r num- 
the >d yeare of a lawyer's nrarZ £ W " We are told *»* 

poefteUs "us that his &«S?C£^r' ?» 
his to everts have been well received ' vl fia " dledb y the critics, but 
S ce ^without nuniber , gS ey Sfc Sf^S 2SS 

«yes We sa7 'The 1 ? "f "' f nd the same ru,e ho!d s & ^P«-la- 
i *£J2Sw^SSf- ,!n ! *f otaltest men,' and not 
be the general rSe of the FnM t 1 " len - , Now > if *« be admitted to 
we should say ' Th £2 Swfei *<* it follows that ^ ra% 
^ifto'-'i/rtK ti- i to '«< &c., rather than "The 
of the words Yet 1 ere £ "«,™ ' Sa - 7 ' sh ° u ' d ^«'«% be the order 
say, >>-Si^5^/ffCSS^ P1 ' eferablet0 



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